.2. 


REESE  L{BRARY  [ 

€>1-      I   III"  f 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA.  [ 

/<(Vr/:r./  /^-^^v,  .moo.  J 


Relative  Position  of    Skeleton  and  Soft    Parts  of    Fowl. 


The 


Diseases  ot  Fouliru 


BY 


D.  E  SALMON,  D.  V.  M., 

Chief  of  the  IT.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 


THE   FEATHER  LIBRARY. 

PCBUSHKI)    BI-MONTHI.V    AT    WASHINGTON,    D.    C, 

in 

GEORGE  E.  HOWARD  &  CO. 

^UBSCKIPTIOX    PRICE    52.50    A    YKAK.      VOL.    I,    NO.    3,    JULY    1899. 

Entered  at  the  Post  Office  at  Washintfioii.  U.  C, 
as  second-class  mail  matter. 


^<^ 


"^ 


6^  •  ^'v- 


cA 


7  (^  3  0  y        '/' 

COPYKir.HTED    AND    PRINTED 


GEORC.E  E.  HOWARD  &  CO., 
Washington,  D.  C. 


PREFACE. 

The  author  has  for  years  given  attention  to  the  dis- 
eases encountered  in  the  poultry -3'ard,  and  long  since 
became  impressed  with  the  desirability  of  a  sj's- 
tematic  treatise  on  the  subject.  The  pamphlets,  by 
various  authors,  which  have  appeared  in  the  English 
language  have  been  verj'  useful,  but  they  have  been 
far  too  brief,  they  have  not  contained  the  results  of 
modern  investigations  and  they  have  lacked  illustra- 
tions. There  have  been  more  extensive  monographs 
in  German,  French  and  Italian,  but  these  have  been, 
for  the  most  part,  sealed  books  to  English-speaking 
poultrj'men. 

It  has  been  necessary  for  the  author  to  examine 
much  of  the  literature  of  this  subject  in  order  to  keep 
abreast  with  the  progress  of  science  and  to  reply  in- 
telligently to  the  numerous  inquiries  which  he  has 
received.  The  notes  thus  made  led  to  the  writing  of 
a  number  of  articles  for  the  press,  which  were  so  well 
received  and  brought  out  so  manj'  requests  for  more 
information,  that  it  was  decided  to  fill  in  the  parts 
which  had  not  been  touched  upon  and  produce  a  small 
reference  book  for  the  use  of  those  interested  in  the 
subject.  This  volume  is  the  result,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  it  maj'  prove  useful  to  the  thousands  who  are  an- 
nually under  the  necessity  of  struggling  with  the 
problem  of  disease  in  the  poultry -yard. 

The  author  has,  in  the  preparation  of  this  work, 
consulted  with  much  profit  the  Medccine  des  o/seanx. 


of  Pierre  Megnin,  the  liucyclopdlir  Cadeac.  The  Dis- 
eases of  Poultry  l)y  J.  Woodroffe  Hill,  the  Compara- 
tive Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  \'ertebrates  by 
Richard  Owen,  the  Iraitc  dr  zoidoiiic  viedicole  ct  agri - 
(idf  ])y  A.  Railliet,  Pic  k'rankhcitcu  dcs  Haus,i>c- 
/Incgrls  \)y  Friedrich  Anton  Znern  Neumann's  Para- 
sites and  Parasitic  Diseases  of  Domesticated  Animals, 
translated  by  Fleming,  and  the  bulletins  and  circulars 
of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  prepared  bj'  Theo- 
bald Smith,  V.  A.  Moore,  C.  W.  vStiles  and  A.  Has- 
sall,  as  well  as  many  valuable  articles  in  the  veterinary' 
periodicals. 

If  this  volume  is  the  means  of  attracting  more  at- 
tention, in  this  countrjs  to  the  diseases  of  l)irds,  if  it 
saves  a  part  of  the  loss  which  now  occurs  from  such 
diseases,  and  if  it  serves  to  mitigate  the  sufferings  of 
these  uncomplaining  but  highly  sensitive  creatures, 
the  purjwse  of  the  author  will  be  accomplished. 

D.  E.  Salmon. 


CONTENTS. 


26 


PREFACE  .  .  •  •  .  .     5 

CtlAPTEK  I.     Intkoduction.  .  ...     13 

The  Poultry  Iiidustrv— Health  and  Disease— The 
Organs  and  Apparatus  and  Their  Functions- 
Common  Causes  of  Disease— Hyg-ienic  Require- 
ments—Disinfection  Objects  of  Medical  Treat- 
ment. 

CHAP  rER  II.— Diseases  of  the  Organs  of  Respika- 

TION.  ...•••• 

Structure  and  FunctioTi— Simple  Catarrh  Roup, 
Contagious  Catarrh— Bronchitis— The  Gapes, 
Verminous  Tracheo-Bronchitis,  Syngamosis— Con- 
gestion of  the  Lungs,  Pulmonary  Congestion- 
Pneumonia  Mycosis  of  the  Air-Passages,  Asper- 
gillosis—The  A'ir-Sac  Mite. 

CHAPTER  III.  Diseases  OF  the  Organs  ok  Diges- 
tion. .  .  •  •  •  •  .  • 
General  Remarks  Concerning  the  Digestive 
Organs— Obstruction  of  the  Beak  Inflammation 
of  the  Mucous  Membrane  of  the  Mouth,  Pip, 
Catarrhal  Stomatitis  Thrush,  Aphtha-  Diph- 
theria—Psorospermosis  Aspergillosis  Croupous 
Angina  Obstruction  of  the  Pharynx  Catarrh  or 
Inflammation  of  the  Crop  Paralysis  of  the  Crop, 
Impacted  Crop,  Obstructed  Crop  Abnormal  Appe- 
tite, Aberration  of  the  Appetite  Catarrh  of  the 
Proventriculus,  Intlammation  of  the  Stomach, 
(iastritis. 

CHAPTER  IV.— Diseases  OF  the  Organs  of  Diges- 
tion (Continued).  .  .  •  •  • 
Gastro-Intestinal  Catarrh,  Simple   Diarrhea,  Gas- 


66 


88 


tro-ICiitcritis,  Kiiteritis  Constipation,  Intestinal 
Obstrnction  Toxic  Gastro-E^nteritis  Bacterial 
Enteritis  Asthenia,  (ioing^  Liyht-  Psorosperniic- 
Enteritis— Infectious  Entero-Hepatitisof  iiirkeys, 
IJkick  Head  Parasitic  Worms  which  Infest  the 
Dijifestive  Apparatus  The  Xodular  Taniasis  of 
Fowls. 

CHAPTER  v.— Diseases  of  thk  Pkkitonkim,  Livkk, 

AM)  Sl'I.KKN".  ......     127 

Peritonitis,  Inflaniniation  of  the  Peritoneum  — 
Chronic  Peritonitis.  Ascites,  Abdominal  Drops\ — 
Diseases  of  the  Liver  Cong^estion  of  the  Eiver 
Intlammation  of  the  Liver,  Hepatitis  Icterus, 
Jaundice,  Biliary  Repletion — Atrophy  or  Wasting' 
of  the  Liver — Fatty  Degeneration  of  the  Liver — 
Fatty  Liver — Tuberculosis  of  the  Liver,  Spleen, 
and  Peritoneum. 

CHAPTER  VI.  -Diseases  of  the  Organs  of  Ukina- 

TiON  AND  Kepkoihction.  .  ...    136 

Brief  Description  of  the  Organs  of  I'/ination  — 
Parenchymatous  Nephritis,  Inflammation  of  the 
Kidneys — Abscess  of  the  Kidneys — Obstruction  of 
the  Cloaca  bv  Urimry  Concretions  The  Male 
Org-ans  of  Reproduction — Hypertrophy  or  En- 
largement of  the  Testicles — Cancer  of  the  Testi- 
cles— Fatty  Degeneration  The  Female  Organs  of 
Reproduction — Atrophy  of  the  CH'ary — Tumors  of 
the  Ovary  (Gangrene  of  the  Ovary — inflammation 
of  the  Oviduct-  Prolapsus  or  Eversion  of  the  (Ovi- 
duct— Difficult  Laying,  Egg"  Bound,  Obstruction  of 
the  Oviduct — Gangrene  of  the  Oviduct — Rupture 
of  the  Oviduct — Cloacitis,  Vent  Gleet  Anomalies 
in  Egg  Production — Egg"  Incubated  in  the  Ovi- 
duct— Parasites  in  Eegs — Sanguineous  Eggs — 
Egg's  Without  Shells  -Egg's  with  Two  Yolks — In- 
complete or  Aborted  Egg's — Eggs  Within  Eggs. 

CHAPTER  VII.   -Diseases  of  the  Brain.  .  .    159 

Cerebral  Hyperiumia,  Congestion  of  the  Brain, 
Vertigo  Hemorrhage  of  the  Brain,  Apoplexy — 
Epilepsy. 

CHAPTER    VIII.— Diseases    of    the    Heart     and 
Bi.ooD  Vessels.  .....    162 

Pericarditis.  Inflammation  of  the  Pericardium, 
Dropsy  of  the  Heart  Sac  Endocarditis.  Inflamma- 
tion of  the  Internal  Membrane  of  the  Heart  — 
Hypertrophy  of  the  Heart  Rupture  of  the  Heart 
and  Large  Blood  Vessels. 


CHAPTER   IX.     Pakasitrs   and    Diskasks    ok    the 

Skin.  .  .  •  •  •  •  •  1^)5 

The  Epizoa  or  Parasites  Living-  Upon  the  Ex- 
ternal Surface  of  the  Body  Scabies  or  Mange  of 
the  Body  Scabies  Caused  by  Epidernioptes— 
Scabies  Caused  by  Sarcoptes,  Depluming  Sca- 
bies- Favus— Chicken  Pox,  Sore  Head,  Pig-eon 
Pox. 

CHAPTER  X.— Diskasks  of  thk  F"eet  and  Legs     .    198 
Leg-    Weakness     Rheumatism    and    Gout— Super- 
ficial Sores  -Corns     Deep  Bruises  and  Abscesses- 
Scabies  of  the  Legs  and  Feet,  Scaly  Legs. 

CHAPTER     XI.— iNFKCTiors     Diseases     Having     a 
Tendency  to  Affect  More  than  One  Skt   of 
Okgans.  .  .  ....    208 

Tuberculosis— Diphtheria,  Diphtheritic  Roup  In- 
fectious Leukajmia — Fowl  Cholera. 

CHAPTER  XII.— Injurious  Habits  or  Vicks.       .       .    243 
Egg-  Eating— Feather  Eating,  Feather  Pulling. 

INDEX  .  .  .  .  ■  •  -247 


LIST  OF   ILLI'STKATIOXS. 


hic.  "^^"^•• 

Skeleton  and  soft  parts  of  a  fowl  (Megnin) 

HKONTISl'IECE. 

1  Lunj^sof  a  fowl  (Mepnini         .  .  •  .     ^7 

2  Head  of  fowl  aflfected  with  contagious  catarrh 
(Megnin)  .  .  .  .  .  .  •'■^ 

3  Right  lung  of  a  goose  (Owen)  .  .  ■     H3 

4  Lung  of  a  bird  in  ideal  section  (Williams)  .  3'* 

5  A  pair  of  syngames  (Megnin)  .  .  -42 

6  Development  of  Synffainiis  trachcalis  (Megnin)  43 
Diagram    illustrating    manner  of    removing  syn- 
games with  wire,  horse-hair  or  feather.                .  43 

7  Reproductive  organs  of  syngames;  pair  of  syn- 
games illustrating  attachment  to  mucous  mem- 
brane (Megnin).  .  •  •  •  .     4.-> 

8  Chicken  affected  with  gapes  (Garman,  Ky.  Agl. 
Exp.  Station)  .....  47 

9  Diagrammatic  representation  of  the  air  sacs 
(Heider)      .  .  •  •  •  •  ■     ^~ 

\\)  Aspergillus  f^laiicus  (C^de^diC)  ...  59 

11  Aspergillus  fiunigatns  (Ziegler)  .  .  .59 

12  Cytodites  ttudus,  male  (Kailliet)      ...  62 

13  Cytodites  nudus,  female  (Railliet)         .  .  .64 

14  Digestive  apparatus  of  a  fowl  (Chauveau)  .  67 

15  Microscopic  elements  of  thrush  (Robin)         .  .     73 

16  Gastric  glands  of  birds  (Owen)      .  .  .80 

17  Ca-caof  healthy  turkey  (Smith,  Bur.  An.  Industry)    104 

18  Diseased  ca>ca,  entero-hepatitis  (Moore,  Bur.  An. 
Ind.)  .  .  .  •  •  -10^ 

19  Liver  of  healthy  turkey  (Moore.  Bur.  An.  Industry)    106 

20  Diseased  liver,  entero-hepatitis  (Moore.  Bur.  An. 
Ind.) It)" 


21  Protozoa  of  entero-hepatitis  (Smith,  Bur.  An.  Iiid.)    108 

22  Section  of  diseased  liver,  entero-hepatitis  (Smith, 
Bur.  An.  Ind.l        ......    109 

23  Section      of     diseased      cacum.      entero-hepatitis 
(Smith,  Bur.  An.  Ind.l  .  .  .  .110 

24  Heicrakis pcrspicillum  iHassall,  Bur.  An.  Industry)    112 

25  Drepanidotietiia  infutidihuUformis  (Goeze)    .  .    117 

26  Xotocofyle  vcrrucosnm  (Looss)        .  .  .  lit* 
11  Echinorhynchiis  polymorphxis  {'R.aWW.qVs           .             .    122 

28  Nodular     ta?niasis;    intestine    with     nodules    and 
tapeworms  (Moore,  Bur.  An.  Industry)     .  .  124 

29  Nodular  tasniasis;    magnified  section   of  intestine 
(Moore,  Bur.  An.  Industry)        ....    125 

30  Urinary    and    reproductive     organs    of     the    hen 
fRailliet)  .  ...  .  .  .138 

31  Reproductive  org-ans  of  the  cock  (Railliet)  .    lo9 

32  Testes  of  the  house  sparrow  (Hunter)      .  .  141 

33  Reproductive  organs  of  the  hen  (Megnin)     .  .    143 

34  Egg  from  upper  part  of  oviduct  (Thomson)        .  i4.S 

35  Chalaza;  from  opposite  sides  of  yolk  (Thomson)     .    145 

36  Egg  from  above  middle  of  oviduct  (Thomson)  145 

37  Section  of  fowl's  egg  (  Thomson)         ,  .  ,    146 

38  Menopon  biseriafunt  (Piaget)  .  .  .  175 

39  Menopon  latuvi  (Piaget)  ....    175 

40  Lipenrus  colinnba-  (Piaget)  .  ,  .  176 

41  Goniodes  dissimilis  (Piaget)      ....    177 

42  Lipeurus  caponis  (Piaget)  .  .  .  178 

43  Mettopon  pallidtim  (P'ia.get)       ....    179 

44  Goniocotes  hologaster  (Piaget)         .  .  .  180 

45  Z>^;';«a«j'5:f«5^a//;«dZ',  upper  surface  (Megnin)         .    181 

46  Derniimyssus  gallincc,  under  surface  (Megnin)  182 

47  Dermanyssus     gallincc,     egg      and      young     mite 
(Megnin)  .  .  .  .  .  .183 

48  Epidi-rmoptes  biloba/iis,  mdi\Q  {'i>ieumviun)  .  184 

49  Epidcrmoptes  bilohatiis,  female  (Neumann)  .    185 

50  Sairoptes  Icrvis,  variety  .?rt///«(r,  male  (Railliet)  186 

51  Satroptes  lt:rz'is,v3.Tie\.y  gallina',iem?L\Q{K-d.\\\\et)    .    187 

52  Satroptes  la-vis,  variety  ga//vur,  larva  (Railliet)  188 

53  Fowl  affected  with  favus  (Neumann)  .  .    189 


54  .ic/tflfion     Srhdnliinii     from      favu^     of      poultry- 
(Neumann)       .  .  .  •  •  1^0 

55  Sore  head    (pij^eon  pjx)   iiioJuUited   pi'j^eon    (Sau- 
felice)  .  .  .  .  .  .  -193 

56  Sore   head   (pij^eoii   pox)   inoculated    pi'4-eon    (Siii- 
felice)  ......  1*^3 

57  Skeleton  of  a  fowl  (Chauveau)  .  .  .    201 

58  Sairoptt's  wu/nns,  male  (Neumann)  .  .  204 

59  Sarcopti's  viutans,  female  (Railliet)     .  .  .    205 

60  Scabies  of  the  foot  (Neumann)  .  .  .  20<i 
<)1  Tubercular  tumor  of  the  wing  (Cadiot  and  Aliny)  209 
<)2  Tubercular  tumor  of  the  head  (Cadiot  and  Almy)    211 

63  Section  of  liver  of  bird  affected  with  tuberculosis 
(Sutton)      .  .  .  .  .  .  .212 

64  Growth  of  horn  from  reg-ion  of  head  affected  with 
tuberculosis  (Krampf)  ....  213 

65  Tuberculosis  of  the  foot  (Sutton)        .  .  .    215 

66  Diphtheritic  exudate  over  the  tongue  (Moore.  Bur. 
An.  Industry)  .  .  .  .  .218 

67  Roof    of     mouth     showing    diphtheritic     exudate 
(Moore,  Bur.  An.  Industry)        ....    223 

68  Bacteriuui  sanffuinariioH.  bouillon  culture  (Moore, 
Bur.  An.  Industry)     .....  227 

69  Bacferiinn  sanffiiinariioii,  from  liver  (Moore.  Bur. 
An.  Industry)        .  .  .  .  .  .228 

70  Bacterium    san_^uinarin))i,  from    spleen    of   rabbit 
(Moore,  Bur.  An.  Industry)  .  .  .229 

71  Bacterium    sanguinarium    in     capillary    of    fowl's 
liver  (Moore,  Bur.  An.  Industry)  .  .  .    230 

72  Bacilli  of  fowl  cholera  (Moore,  Bur.  An.  Industrv)    237 


CHAPTER  I. 


InTRODL'CTION 


THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY— HEALTH  AND  DISEASE— THE  OR- 
GANS AND  APPARATUS  AND  THEIR  FUNCTIONS — COMMON 
CAUSES  OF  DISEASE— HYGIENIC  REQUIREMENTS— DIS- 
INFECTION—OBJECTS   OF   MEDICAL   TREATMENT. 


THE    POULTRY    INDUSTRY. 

/^mm^H'E   domesticated    birds,    which  we  group  to- 
/  \         gether  under   the   general    term    "  poultry," 
^^i^     constitute  a  very  important  part  of  the  "  farm 
animals  "  of  the  country.     Their  number  and 
value  are  enormous.     There  were  in  1890  according  to 
the  census   258,871,125    chickens   or  dung -hill   fowls 
and  26,738,315  other  domesticated  fowls  in  the  United 
States.     This  gives  a  total  of  285,609,440  individual 
fowls.     The  number  at  present  in  the  country  is  un- 
doubtedly much  larger  than  in  1890. 

The  annual  earnings  of  American  poultry  amount  to 
an  immense  sum,  and  have  been  estimated  all  the  way 
from  $200,000,000  to  $350,000,000.  The  truth  lies 
somewhere  between  these  extremes,  but  sufficient  data 
has  not  been  collected  to  enable  any  one  to  reach  a 
very  accurate  conclusion.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
the  poultry  industry  constitutes  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant  branches  of  agriculture,  and   that   it   is  well 


14 


i>i.si:a.si:.s  of  imji-i.trv. 


U'orthyo;  lliein.,>t  careful  sltuly  and  attenlion.  About 
«i()  million  dozens  of  egs-s  were  returned  in  the  census 
of  I8y(.,  with  no  account  of  dressed  poultry,  feathers 
&c.  Nothing  relating  to  such  an  industry  is  ])eneatli 
the  talents  or  dignity  of  the  most  learned  and  able  i)er- 
sons  m  the  land.  It  is  only  the  thoughless  and  igno- 
rant who  speak  slightingly  of  the  "  chicken  husine'ss  " 
or  who  consider  it  inferior  to  any  other  occupation.   ' 

HI-:.\I.TII    AM)    DISKASH. 

The  success  of   poultry  raising  depends    upon    the 
ability  of  those  engaged  in  this  industry  to  keep  their 
birds  thriving,  vigorous,  and  free  from  disease      From 
an  economical  point  of  view  birds  are  machines  which 
consume  certain  kinds  of  raw  material  and  produce  eg-s 
and   meat.     They  should  be  kept  in  such  a  condition 
that  they  can  most  profitably  work  this  transformation 
One  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  to  profitable  poultry 
keeping  is  the  effect  of  diseases   in  arresting  the  pro- 
ductive   activity  of   the   flock   and    in    decimatin-  its 
numbers.     More   failures  in  the  poultry  business''  are 
traceable  to  disease  than  to  any  other  cau.se.     A  knowl  - 
edge  of  the  nature,  prevention,  and  curafve  treatment 
of  the  more  common  diseases  of   fowls  is,  therefore 
essential  to  success  in  this  industry;   and  a  treatise  on 
this  subject  for  ready  reference  must  necessarily  be  one 
of  the  most  useful  articles  in  the  poultrvman's  outfit 
Ihe.se  diseases  are  treated  with  consKleral.le  detail  in 
this  volume,  but  before  entering  upon  the  study  of  the 
individual  di.seases,  it  will  be  of  great  assistance  to  -et 
a  clear  idea  of  what  constitutes  disease,  how  it  is  caus'ed 
and  upon   what  principles   it   may  be    prevented   and 
cured. 

We  say  a  bird   is   in  good  health  when   it  apj)ears 


DISKASES    OF    POULTRY'.  15 

lively,  has  a  clear  eye,  a  Ijright  red  comb,  is  quick  and 
active  in  its  movements,  has  a  good  appetite  and  when 
the  various  organs  of  the  body  perform  their  functions 
in  the  manner  in  which  they  are  observed  to  act  in  all 
birds  that  are  vigorous  and  thriving.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  say  a  bird  is  disea.sed  when  some  function  or 
functions  of  its  body  are  not  performed  as  they  are  in 
the  great  majority  of  individuals,  or  when  some  organ 
presents  an  unusual  form  or  appearance.  Disease  has, 
therefore,  been  defined  as  a  life  the  manifestations  of 
which  deviate  more  or  less  from  the  normal.  Practi- 
cally, we  say  a  bird  is  diseased  when  we  observe  that 
ore  or  more  of  its  functions  are  not  carried  on  in  a 
normal  manner,  or  when  we  find  unusual  growths,  in- 
juries, or  i)arasites  affecting  any  of  its  organs. 

THE  ORGANS  AND  APPARATUS  AND  THEIR  FUNCTIONS. 

In  the  study  of  disease,  one  of  the  most  important 
things  is  to  acquire  the  habit  of  looking  at  a  bird,  not 
as  one  indivisible  object,  but  as  an  individual  made 
up  of  many  distinct  parts,  each  of  which  has  its  special 
function  to  perform.  Thus,  we  find  the  beak,  the 
tongue,  the  CESophagus,  the  crop,  the  proventriculus,  the 
gizzard,  the  pancreas,  the  liver,  and  the  intestines,  each 
separate  and  distinct  in  itself,  and  each  liable  to  be 
affected  by  disease.  We  observe  also  that  these  organs 
taken  together  make  up  the  digestive  apparatus  and 
that  they  are  associated  together  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining,  preparing,  and  assimilati  ig  nutritive  ma- 
terial for  the  sustenance  of  the  body  as  a  whole.  We 
are  often  able  to  determine  that  there  is  something 
wrong  with  the  working  of  an  a])]iaratus  l)efore  we  are 
able  to  locate  the  troulde  in  one  or  more  organs.  To 
ascertain  the  seat  of  a  disease  and  understand  its  nature, 


](->  DISKASES    OF    POUI.TKY. 

\vc  must,  consc(HK-iUly,  know  the  different  ()rij:ans  ot 
the  body,  we  must  know  wliat  work  each  origan  does, 
and  how  the  orjj^ans  are  associated  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  a  common  pur])ose. 

Besides  the  digestive  a])i)aratus,  we  find  in  the  l)ir(rs 
body  the  nostrils.  Larynx,  trachea,  lungs  and  air-sacs 
which  together  constitute  the  rrsp/ra/ory  apparatus. 
The  principal  functions  of  this  apparatus  arc  to  supply 
oxygen  to  the  blood  and  receive  in  return  carl)onic  acid 
gas  and  watery  vapor.  Then,  there  is  the  circulatory 
apparatus,  composed  of  the  heart,  arteries,  capillaries, 
veins,  and  lymphatics,  which  carries  the  nourishment 
and  the  ox^-gen  to  every  part  of  the  body  and  ])rings 
away  the  waste  and  worn  out  material.  There  is  the 
urinary  apparatus,  made  u])  of  the  kidneys  and  the 
ureters,  which  separates  and  removes  from  the  l)lood 
the  great  part  of  the  waste  of  the  body  which  can  not 
be  vaporized  and  carried  away  with  the  air  ex])ired 
from  the  lungs.  There  is  the  genital  apparatus  which 
in  the  male  consists  of  testes,  vas  deferens,  and,  with 
some  varieties,  a  penis,  and  in  the  female  of  ovaries, 
and  oviducts,  the  pur])ose  of  this  apparatus  being  the 
reproduction  and  perpetuation  of  the  species.  There  is 
the  locomotive  apparatus  and  framework  of  the  body, 
made  up  of  the  bones,  ligaments,  muscles,  and  tendon.s. 
There  is  the  brain  and  nervous  system  which  estab- 
lishes connnunication  lietween  and  governs  the  different 
organs  and  apparatus.  And,  finally,  there  is  the 
tegumentary  system,  which  includes  the  skin  and 
feathers  and  the  function  of  which  is  to  cover  and  ])ro- 
tect  the  body,  and  excrete  a  certain  amount  of  liquid 
bearing  with  it  some  soluble  waste  products  from,  the 
blood. 


disi-;ask.s  oi*  poi'i/rKv.  17 

COMMON    CAUSKS    OF    DISEASE. 

In  order  to  act  intellij^^ently  for  the  prevention  and 
cure  of  a  disease,  we  must  know  somethin,!^  of  its  cause  ; 
and  in  order  to  determine  the  cause,  we  must  know  the 
a.u^encies  which  are  liable  to  injuriously  affect  the  dis- 
eased organ.  If  it  is  found  that  the  dii^estive  organs 
are  affected,  we  are  naturally  led  to  inquire  into  the 
character  and  quantity  of  food  that  has  been  taken  ;  the 
amount  of  exercise  which  the  birds  hav^e  had ;  whether 
they  have  had  access  to  gravel  or  grit ;  whether  the 
alimentary  canal  is  obstructed  at  any  point ;  whether 
the  affected  birds  have  been  unduly  exposed  to  cold  or 
to  draughts  of  air ;  and,  finally,  whether  they  have  been 
attacked  by  any  of  the  parasites,  vegetable  or  animal, 
which  are  known  to  cause  disturbance  of  the  digestive 
functions.  If  the  respiratory  organs  are  diseased,  it  is 
proper  to  inquire  if  the  birds  have  been  chilled  or  ex- 
])osed  to  draughts  of  air,  or  to  a  damp  atmosphere;  or 
whether  they  are  the  prey  of  parasitic  organisms  such 
as  multiply  in  this  portion  of  the  bird's  body.  If  the 
skin,  comb,  wattles,  or  feet  are  affected,  the  most  likely 
causes  are  freezing,  mechanical  injuries,  and  parasites. 
If  lameness  is  exhibited  it  is  probably  due  to  injuries 
or  rheumatism.  If  the  general  health  is  affected  as 
shown  by  mal -nutrition,  paleness,  and  loss  of  weight, 
the  most  common  causes  are  indigestion  from  impro])er 
food,  and  the  attacks  of  internal  or  external  parasites. 
Diseases  of  the  brain  result  from  exposure  to  too  great 
heat,  and  sunstroke,  from  over  exertion,  and  from  too 
high  feeding  with  insufficient  exercise.  Diseases  of 
the  ovaries  and  oviducts  result  from  the  bird  being  too 
fat;  from  these  organs  being  over-stimulated,  or  from 
the  ration  being  improperly  adjusted  to  the  needs  of 
the  body. 


18  I)I.si-:asi:s  oi-   I'on.TKv. 

These  are  by  far  the  most  common  causes  of  disease 
with  the  domesticated  birds.  There  are  other  causes, 
such  as  rupture  of  a  blood  vessel  from  weakness  of  its 
walls ;  the  dejfeneration  of  the  tissues  of  important 
organs  through  some  obscure  influence;  the  inexplic- 
able failure  of  some  part  of  the  bod}'  to  perform  its 
functions  and  the  development  of  abnormal  growths. 
These  are  more  commonly  observed,  however,  in  old 
birds,  and.  as  financial  considerations  lead  to  the  fre- 
quent renewal  of  the  poultrj-man's  stock,  such  forms  of 
disease  rarely  occur  and  are  confined  to  a  very  few  birds. 

HYGIENIC    REQUIREMENTS. 

The  conditions  required  for  the  maintenance  of  health 
and  vigor  in  a  flock  of  birds,  are  similar  to  what  are 
required  for  other  animals.  These  conditions,  how- 
ever, are  more  important  with  birds  than  witli  ciuadru- 
peda  because  the  activities  of  the  former  are  more 
intense.  That  is  to  say  the  bird  digests  more  food  in 
proportion  to  its  weight,  it  breathes  more  rapidly,  its 
blood  circulates  faster,  its  temperature  is  higher,  and  it 
makes  a  proportionate  increase  in  weight  in  a  shorter 
time.  The  bird  maj-,  therefore,  be  comjiared  to  a  very 
perfect  and  delicate  machine  running  under  a  high 
pressure.  If  properlj'  managed,  such  a  machine  gives 
the  ver}' best  results;  l)ut  if  neglected  and  run  under 
improper  conditions,  it  soon  fails  to  l)e  satisfactor}- 
and  may  entirely  collapse. 

One  of  the  first  problems  which  the  ])Oultr3-man  is 
called  upon  to  solve  is  the  location  of  the  poultr}'  plant. 
There  are  some  general  principles  which  are  of  ereat 
assistance  in  considering  this  question.  The  building 
or  buildings  should  be  upon  an  elevated  spot  where 
the  drainage  is  good,  and  an}-  danger  of  water  settling 


X 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRV.  19 

under  the  l)uilding  durins^  heavj'  rains  should  be  guard- 
ed against  by  fdling  in  with  a  foot  or  more  of  earth 
before  the  construction  is  commenced.  It  is  a  great 
advantage  to  have  soil  which  contains  enough  sand  to 
prevent  the  quick  formation  of  mud  and  which  soon 
dries.  Dampness  in  the  houses  and  mud  in  the  yards 
are  not  favorable  conditions  for  poultry  raising. 

The  next  condition  of  importance  is  a  proper  amount 
of  space  in  the  houses  and  yards.  This  depends  some- 
what upon  the  size  of  the  birds  and  whether  a  shed  is 
attached  to  the  house.  Houses  without  sheds  should 
have  from  six  to  fifteen  square  feet  to  each  adult  bird, 
while  those  with  sheds  may  be  reduced  to  about  one- 
half  this  space.  The  yards  should  be  large  enough  to 
allow  exerci.se  in  the  open  air,  and  large  enough  to 
supply  more  grass  than  the  birds  will  eat.  This  will 
vary  from  60  to  150  square  feet  per  adult  bird.  The 
open  shed  facing  the  south,  where  the  fowls  can  be  in- 
duced to  hunt  for  their  food  and  take  exercise  in  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  and  where  they  can  enjoy  the 
pleasure  of  scratching  and  dusting  themselves  in  the 
sunshine,  even  during  the  Winter  months,  is  of  great 
assistance  in  maintaining  the  health  and  productive- 
ness of  the  flock. 

The  ventilation  of  the  poultry -house  should  be  pro- 
vided for  in  such  a  way  that  draughts  of  air  will  not 
strike  the  birds.  The  amount  of  ventilation  required 
will  depend  largely  upon  the  height  of  the  house,  the 
atmospheric  temperature  and  the  velocity  of  the  wind. 
In  northern  latitudes,  with  buildings  of  moderate 
height,  the  problem  in  winter  is  rather  to  keep  the  cold 
out  than  to  let  the  air  in.  When  the  weather  is  not  too 
cold,  however,  the  admission  of  plenty  of  fresh  air  is 
important  and  particularly  so  if  the  walls  and  roofs  of 


|20  DISEASES    OF    POUI.TKV. 

the  houses  are  made  air-ti^^ht  with  one  or  more  layers  of 
buildin.sc  paj^er.  There  are  various  methods  by  which 
such  liouses  may  1)e  ventilated  without  endangering 
the  birds  with  currents  of  air,  but  as  the  details  of  these 
methods  depend  largely  upon  the  plan  of  building 
adopted,  they  will  not  be  discussed  in  this  volume. 

Cleanliness  is  an  essential  sanitary  condition  for  all 
animals,  but  particularly  so  for  birds.  Accumulations 
of  excrement  harbor  parasites,  vitiate  the  atmosphere 
and  breed  contagion.  The  poultry -house  should, 
therefore,  be  constructed  with  a  view  to  its  freciuent, 
easy,  and  thorough  cleaning.  The  roosts  and  nest 
boxes  should  be  removable,  so  that  all  parasites  which 
collect  upon  them  may  be  reached  and  destroyed.  The 
floor  should  be  smooth  to  permit  .scraping  and  sweep- 
ing. Cracks  and  knot  holes  should  be  avoided  as  they 
furnish  a  hiding  place  for  parasites.  Low  boxes  con- 
taining dry  earth  or  road  dust  should  be  provided  in 
which  the  birds  can  take  a  dust  bath  with  regularity. 

DISINFECTION. 

Disinfection  is  the  destruction  or  removal  of  in- 
fection. Infection  of  poultry -houses  and  runs  occurs 
from  the  introduction  of  animal  and  vegetable  para- 
sites, including  the  various  microbes  and  unknown 
forms  of  contagion.  There  are  no  precautions  which 
will  entirely  prevent  such  infection.  The  fowls  with 
which  the  flock  is  started  will  probably  be  already  in- 
fected with  many  varieties  of  parasites.  Wild  birds  and 
various  animals  or  possibly  the  attandant  may  bring 
contagion  and  even  the  larger  animal  parasites.  Some 
of  these  parasites  multiply  in  the  birds'  bodies,  others 
breed  in  the  houses,  still  others  pass  a  portion  of  their 
life  cycle  in  or  upon  the  soil  of  the  runs. 


disp:ases  of  poultry.  21 

The  longer  fowls  are  kept  upon  the  same  premises, 
the  more  these  parasites  will  increase,  and  the  j3:reater 
damage  and  menace  the}'  will  be  to  the  flock.  S3-stem  - 
atic  and  efficient  measures  must,  therefore,  be  instituted 
and  regularly  emploj-ed  in  order  to  keep  such  pests 
in  check,  and,  if  possible,  entirelj'  eradicate  them. 
Some  species  of  parasites  are  quite  easily  controlled, 
but  others  will  tax  the  ingenuity  and  skill  of  the  poul- 
trj-man  to  the  utmost. 

The  methods  of  disinfection  applicable  to  the  poul - 
trj'  plant  are  numerous,  and  it  is  important  to  under- 
stand those  which  are  most  available  and  which  can  be 
used  with  least  danger  to  persons  and  fowls.  For  the 
inside  of  the  houses,  including  the  roosts  and  nest 
boxes,  hot  lime  wash  is  one  of  the  best  applications 
and  should  be  used  at  least  twice  a  3'ear.  If  thoroughlj' 
applied,  it  will  destroy  both  animal  parasites  and  mi- 
crobes. The  disinfecting  power  of  lime  wash  maj^  be 
increased  b}'  the  addition  of  one -fourth  pound  carbolic 
acid  to  each  gallon.  When  a  gaseous  disinfectant  is 
needed  to  reach  the  ceilings  of  houses  and  the  hang- 
ings of  brooders,  formalin  (formaldehyde)  will  be 
found  by  far  the  most  efficient.  It  may  be  spra3'ed 
over  the  inside  of  the  house  or  brooder  in  a  three 
to  five -per -cent  solution,  a^id  if  the  doors  and  win- 
dows are  then  tightly  closed,  so  that  the  vapors 
will  be  confined,  everj'  part  of  the  interior  of  the  struct- 
ure will  be  disinfected.  Formalin  may  now  l)e 
purchased  in  a  forty -per -cent  solution  and  maj-  be 
diluted  with  water  to  the  desired  strength.  One  pound 
of  the  solution  added  to  a  gallon  of  water  makes  a 
mixture  of  about  the  projier  strength. 

For  the  destruction  of  the  external  animal  parasites 
many  apply  kerosene  oil  and  crude  petroleum  to  the 


22  DISKASES    OK    POULTRY. 

roosts,  but  these  sulistances  are  not  to  be  compared  in 
eflBciency  with  hot  lime  wash.  The  fowls  themselves 
may  be  dusted  with  insect  powder  or  dipped  in  a  creo- 
lin  solution  (2  per  cent),  and  insect  powder  may  be 
added  to  the  dust  baths  and  strewed  in  the  nests  when 
the  vermin  become  troublesome.  Other  remedies  suit- 
able to  special  conditions  will  be  given  in  subsequent 
chapters. 

The  runs  should  be  occasionally  plowed,  in  order  to 
bury  the  accumulated  excrement  and  parasites,  and  at 
the  same  time  bring  fresh  soil  to  the  surface.  If  this 
does  not  prove  sufficient  for  the  purpose,  the  soil  should 
be  covered  with  a  good  coating  of  lime  or  thoroughly 
saturated  with  a  five -per -cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
some  days  before  it  is  plowed,  and  no  fowls  allowed 
upon  such  runs  for  six  months  or  a  j^ear. 

If  in  spite  of  these  precautions,  intestinal  worms  be- 
come more  and  more  injurious,  or  if  one  or  more  of 
the  various  diseases  caused  by  fungi,  bacteria,  or  pro- 
tozoa continue  to  affect  the  birds,  the  only  resource  is 
to  move  the  flock  to  fresh  ground.  In  starting  a  new 
flock,  or  in  removing  to  a  new  locality  to  escape  para- 
sites, it  is  a  good  plan  to  leave  the  old  birds  behind, 
and  only  take  young  ones  which  have  been  hatched  in 
incubators  and  which  have  never  been  outside  of  clean 
brooders.  The  adult  birds  would  certainly  carry  many 
])arasites  with  them,  while  these  young  birds  should  be 
iminfected. 

OBJKCTS    or    MEDICAL    TREATMENT. 

In  the  treatment  of  sick  birds,  medicines  should  not  be 
administered  blindly,  but  on  the  contrary  there  should 
be  a  clear  idea,  before  the  remedy  is  selected,  of  what 
is  to  be  accomplished.     Otherwise,  it  is  probable  that 


DISEASES    OF    POrLTRY.  23 

more  harm  than  good  will  result.  In  giving  medicines 
intelligently  there  are  three  distinct  objects  which  one 
may  attempt  to  accomplish  : 

1.  To  neutralize,  remove  or  destroy  the  cause  of  the 
disease. 

2.  To  cause  the  repair  of  the  affected  tissues. 

3.  To  counteract  or  remove  the  symptoms. 

1 .  As  to  the  first  object  mentioned,  it  is  clear  that  we 
can  only  direct  our  remedies  towards  the  cause,  when 
that  cause  continues  to  act.  In  catarrh,  pneumonia, 
inflammation  of  the  intestines,  and  other  diseases  which 
result  from  exposure  to  cold,  for  example,  the  cause 
may  have  been  a  cold  draught  of  air  on  a  windy  night. 
When  the  bird  is  discovered  to  be  sick,  a  day  or  two 
later,  the  cause  is  no  longer  acting.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  ]:)arasitic  diseases,  the  cause  continues  to  act,  as  a 
rule,  until  it  is  destroyed  by  remedies  or  by  the  vital 
processes  of  the  l)od3^  These  examples  are  simpl}'  ill  - 
ustrations  of  the  general  fact  that  there  are  only  a  part  of 
the  diseases  that  affect  birds,  in  which  an  attempt  can 
be  made  to  reach  the  cause. 

There  are  sjiecial  methods  of  treatment  ap])licable  to 
the  epizoa  or  external  animal  ]:)arasites,  and  ciuite  diff- 
erent methods  for  the  entozoa  or  internal  animal  par- 
asites. Likewise  the  treatment  for  epiphytes,  or  ex- 
ternal vegetable  parasites,  may  differ  widely  from  that 
a])plied  to  entophytes  or  internal  vegetable  parasites. 
In  all  these  cases,  however,  we  endeavor  to  remove  or 
destroy  the  cause  of  the  disease.  Poisoning  may  be 
treated  u]){)n  the  some  princii)le;  that  is,  an  attempt 
may  be  made  to  neutralize,  destroy  or  remove  the 
poison.  Whenever  possible,  the  remedies  should  be 
directed  to  the  cause  of  the  disease,  since  while  this  con- 
tinues to  act  a  cure  is  impossible. 


24  DISKASKS    OV    POn.TKV. 

2.  To  secure  the  repair  of  the  affected  tissues  is  also 
a  very  important  object  of  medication.  Wounds  may 
require  stimulating  or  astringent  treatment;  inflamma- 
tions may  he  reduced  l)y  cooling  applications  or  l)y  seda  - 
tives;  an  anaemic  condition  is  counteracted  by  tonics; 
the  congestion  of  an  internal  organ  may  be  relieved  by 
inducing  increased  circulation  at  the  surface  of  the  body 
either  by  heat  or  counter -irritation.  These  are  ex- 
amples of  treatment  applied  to  relieve  the  abnormal 
condition  and  secure  the  repair  of  the  diseased  part. 
When  the  cause  of  the  disease  has  ceased  to  act,  this 
line  of  treatment  should  be  adopted,  if  possible. 

3.  There  are,  unfortunately,  many  cases  in  which  it 
is  neither  possible  to  adopt  treatment  for  the  removal 
of  the  cause  or  the  repair  of  the  affected  part.  In  such 
cases  we  are  limited  to  symptoviatic  medication.  The 
effort  then  is  to  mitigate  the  alarming  and  dangerous 
symptoms.  There  are  many  conditions  in  which  such 
a  course  is  of  great  advantage.  Thus,  when  the  forces 
of  the  body  are  weakened  or  exhausted  this  state  may 
be  temporarily  relieved  with  stimulants;  when  the 
temperature  is  dangerously  high,  it  may  be  reduced  by 
appropriate  remedies ;  when  pain  is  severe  it  may  be 
arrested  by  drugs  which  act  upon  the  nerves ;  when 
there  is  constipation,  laxatives  or  purgatives  may  be 
indicated,  and  when  there  is  purging  it  may  be  stopped 
with  medicines  having  the  opposite  effect;  for  spas- 
modic contractions  of  the  muscles,  there  is  a  class  of 
medicines  called  antispasmodics ;  and  there  are  drugs 
which  increa.se  the  various  secretions.  It  is  plain, 
therefore,  that  while  removing  the  cause  of  disease,  and 
working  for  the  repair  of  the  affected  parts  are  scientific 
and   essential    plans    of    treatment,    the     symptomatic 


DISEASKS    OF    POULTRY.  25 

method,  also,  has  its  apj^Iicatious  which  will  be  found 
both'munerous  and  inii)ortant. 

The  intelli.^^ent  treatment  of  disease  will  be  conducted 
with  one  or  more  of  these  three  ol)jects  in  view.  W'e 
ma}'  at  the  same  time  ai)pl3'  remedies  to  destroy  a  para- 
site, and  to  allay  the  irritation  or  heal  the  injuries  which 
it  has  caused.  It  is,  also,  ])ossible  in  certain  cases  to 
sinuiltaneously  attack  the  cause  of  disease,  to  treat  the 
local  injury  and  to  beneficially  modify  the  urgent  s^-ni])- 
toms.  The  skill  of  the  ])ractitioner  is  shown  by  the  re- 
sources with  which  he  is  able  to  meet  and  overcome  the 
varied  conditions  of  disease  wdiich  confront  him  at  dif- 
ferent times  and  with  different  individuals.  To  be  suc- 
cessful he  must  Ije  able  to  accurately  determine  the 
nature  of  the  disease  and  the  condition  of  the  ])atient. 


CHAPTER  II, 


Diseases  of  the  Organs  of  Respiration. 


STRICTURE  AND  FUNCTION — SIMPLE  CATARRH — ROUP,  CONTA- 
GIOUS CATARRH — BRONCHITIS — THE  GAPES,  VERMINOUS 
TRACHEO-BRONCHITIS,  SYNGAMOSIS — CONGESTION  OK 
THE  LUNGS,  PULMONARY  CONGESTION  —  PNEUMONIA^ 
MYCOSIS  OK  THE  AIR-PASSAGES,  ASPERGILLOSIS — THE  AIR 
SAC  MITE. 


STRUCTURE    AND    FUNCTION. 

/^^^Hli  respiratory  organs  of  birds  differ  consider - 
/   \         abh'  from  those  with  which  we  are  familiar  in 
^^i^     the   Other   species   of   domesticated    animals. 
The  plan  of  structure  of  these  org^ans  follows 
more  closely  the  analogous  organs  of  reptiles  than  it 
does  those  of  mammals.     This  should  not  excite  sur- 
prise as   it  is  now   admitted  that  iMrds  are  descended 
from  some  animal  of  the  reptilian  group. 

The  lungs  are  confined,  as  they  are  in  the  tortoise, 
to  the  back  part  of  the  body  cavity,  and  are  firmly 
attached  to  the  ribs  and  the  spaces  between  these  bones. 
Large  membranous  sacs,  communicating  with  the  lungs 
and  serving  as  reservoirs  of  air,  extend  to  the  posterior 
portion  of  the  abdomen  and  even  into  the  bones.  The 
lungs  are  not  suspended  freel}'  and  divided  into  lobes 
as  we  see  them  in  other  farm  animals,  but  thej'  are 
attached  to  the  back  part  of  the  chest  and  are  accu- 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 


27 


ratel}'  molcbJ  to  the  ine<[ualities  of  the  ribs  and    the 
spaces  between  the  ribs. 

Notwithstanding  these  resemblances  to  the  sluggish 
cold-blooded  animals,  the  bird's  breathing  ap])aratus 
is  of  the  highest  order  of  excellence,  and  wonderfull}' 

effective.  The  lungs  are 
comparatively  small  and 
have  little  elasticity,  but 
there  is  a  compensation  for 
these  features  in  the  free 
communication  with  the 
si)acious  air  sacs  which 
contain  an  abundant  su]i]:)ly 
of  air. 

The  up]-)er  opening  of  the 
tr.;chea  or  windpi])e  is  on 
the  floor  of  the  mouth  just 
behind  the  tongue.  The 
larynx  at  the  beginning  of 
the  windpi])e,  which  is  such 
a  perfect  structure  in  the 
higher  mammals,  is  in  birds 
only  slightly  developed. 
The  edges  of  the  larynx  ap  - 
pear  to  close  together  so 
l)erfectly  that  no  epiglottis 
or  lid  is  neccssar}-.  There 
are  no  vocal  cords  in  the 
larynx  as  in  mammals,  and 
therefore  this  organ  can  not 
produce  voice,  and  it  only 
raises  or  lowers  a  note  by  bringing  together  or  separat- 
ing the  stiff  margins  of  the  opening.  The  true  organ 
of  voice  in  l)irds  is  the  lowerlarynx  or  syrinx,  which  is 


Fiy.  l.-LuiifTs  of  a  Bird. 
A. — Lowor  Surface. 
B.— Upper  Surface. 


2S  DI.Sl-.ASKS    Ol-    rori.TKV. 

found  in  no  oilier  class  of  animals  and  is  situated 
where  the  trachea  divides  to  form  bronchi. 

The  two  primary  bronchi,  formed  by  the  division  of 
the  trachea,  penetrate  the  lungs,  branching  as  they  go 
and  end  in  the  air  sacs  which  have  already  been  men- 
tioned. The  primary  branches  of  the  bronchial  tubes 
give  off  secondary  branches,  and  the  secondarj' branches 
in  turn  send  off  tertiary  branches.  These  finer  branches 
open  ui^on  a  dense  network  of  minute,  almost  naked, 
blood  vessels,  through  the  delicate  walls  of  which  the 
ox3'gen  passes  to  the  blood  and  the  carbonic  acid  and 
other  vapors  escape. 

There  are  in  all  nine  air  sacs,  four  on  each  side,  and 
one  (the  interclavicular)  which  has  been  formed  by  the 
union  of  another  pair.  These  are  named  the  cervical, 
the  interclavicular,  the  anterior  thoracic,  the  posterior 
thoracic,  and  the  abdominal  sacs.  With  many  birds 
the  air  sacs  extend  into  the  humerus  or  large  bone  of 
the  wing,  with  some,  into  the  breastbone,  the  thigh 
])one,  and  even  other  bones  of  the  body.  The  air  sacs 
act  principall}'  as  reservoirs  of  air,  feeding  the  lungs 
between  the  periods  of  inspiration  and  ensuring  an 
abiindant  air  supply  at  all  times.  There  is  possibl}- 
some  oxygenation  of  the  blood  through  their  walls, 
and  the}'  serve  in  addition  to  reduce  the  weight  of  the 
body. 

Nearly  all  the  moisture  which  escapes  from  the  bird's 
body  passes  off  through  the  respiratory  organs.  With 
mammals,  a  large  proportion  of  the  liquid  taken  into 
the  bod}'  is  evaporated  from  the  surface  of  the  skin, 
and  this  process  serves  as  an  efficient  regulation  of  the 
l)ody  tem])erature.  A  considerable  amount  of  liquid  is 
aLso  excreted  b}-  the  kidneys  of  such  animals.  In  ])irds 
the  secretion  of  the  kidneys  contains  but  a  small  quan- 


DISKASKS    OF    POUI/rKY.  29 

tity  of  water,  and  the  skin  has  no  sweat  .glands,  so  that 
but  an  insignificant  amount  of  moisture  is  evaporated 
from  the  external  surface  of  the  body.  The  lungs  and 
air  sacs  of  birds  mist,  therefore,  perform  not  only  the 
duties  which  devolve  upon  the  respiratory  organs  of 
mammals,  but  also  largely  those  of  the  kidneys  and 
skin  as  well. 

On  the  whole,  the  bird's  respiratory  apparatus  is 
very  perfect  and  more  active  than  that  of  anj^  mam- 
mal. The  quantity'  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  is  very 
large,  the  breathing  is  rapid,  and  the  oxidation  of  the 
blood  is  necessarily  thorough  to  maintain  the  high 
temperature  of  the  bird's  body.  With  all  of  this,  birds 
are  capable  of  great  and  ])rolonged  muscular  exertion  ; 
the  "  wind  "  of  the  Homing  Pigeon,  for  instance,  being 
something  remarkable. 

The  intimate  connection  which  exists  between  the 
bronchi  and  air  sacs  readily  permits  of  the  extension  of 
a  di.sease  process  from  one  to  the  other,  and  parasites 
or  i^arasitic  diseases  may  be  common  to  both.  Injured 
birds  may  even  breathe  through  a  broken  humerus 
which  has  pierced  the  skin,  when  their  windpipes  are 
obstructed  with  blood  and  impermeable  to  air.  In  this 
case  the  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs  through  the  inter- 
clavicular air  sac  instead  of  penetrating  by  way  of  the 
trachea  and  bronchi.  The  respiratory  apparatus  of 
birds  differs,  therefore,  to  a  remarkable  extent  from 
that  of  other  animals,  in  structure,  in  function,  and  in 
the  development  and  extension  of  the  diseases  to  wdiich 
it  is  subject. 

SIMPLE    C.VTAKRH. 

One  of  the  most  common  diseases  of  birds  is  catarrh. 
It  is  sometimes  mild,  attacks  but  a  few  birds  in  a  flock 
and  is  easily  overcome.     At  other  times    it   is   more 


30  riSKASES    OK    I'on.TKV. 

severe,  affects  all  or  iK-arly  all  the  birds  in  a  flock  and 
only  yields  to  enerj^etic  and  ])rolonged  treatment.  In 
case  of  long -continued  cold  and  damp  weather,  birds 
in  different  flocks  may  be  affected  at  the  same  time, 
leading  to  the  suspicion  of  an  infectious  disease, 
although  it  is  really  due  to  climatic  conditions  acting 
over  a  large  territory  at  the  same  time.  It  is  important 
to  make  a  careful  examination  as  soon  as  the  disease 
appears  and  to  determine  whether  it  is  simple  catarrh 
or  infectious  catarrh,  as  the  treatment  to  be  adopted 
in   the  two  cases  differs  materially. 

Symptoms. —  In  simple,  non-contagious  catarrh,  the 
affected  birds  are  more  or  less  dull,  they  are  disinclined 
to  move,  their  appetites  are  diminished,  they  sneeze  and 
the  mucous  membrane  is  thickened,  causing  some  ob- 
struction to  breathing  through  the  nostrils.  There  soon 
appears  a  thin,  watery  discharge  which  later  becomes 
thicker  and  glutinous,  the  eyes  are  often  watery,  the 
eyelids  swollen  and  sometimes  held  together  by  a  thick, 
viscid  secretion.  In  very  severe  cases,  the  birds  are 
somnolent,  the  plumage  is  erect  and  roughened,  the 
nostrils  are  completely  obstructed  by  the  thick  sec- 
retion, the  breathing  is  entirely  through  the  mouth 
and  is  accompanied  by  a  wheezing  or  snoring  sound, 
the  appetite  is  entirely  lost,  a  thin  liquid  escapes  from 
the  mouth  and  the  bird  soon  becomes  exhausted  a::d 
dies.  In  the  milder  cases  simple  catarrh  may  disappear 
without  treatment,  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  days; 
or,  in  case  the  cause  is  allowed  to  persist,  the  birds 
may  become  worse  and  die,  or  the  disease  may  be- 
come chronic  and  continue  its  effects  for  a  long  time. 
Causation. —  Simple  catarrh  is  the  result  of  undue 
exposure  to  cold  and  dampness  or  to  draughts  of  air.  It 
is  most  commonly  seen  where  the  houses  are  damp  and 


DISEASES    or    POULTRY.  31 

filthy,  with  cracks  and  openini^s,  through  which  the  wind 
blows  upon  the  fowls,  or  with  birds  that  have  been 
exposed  to  unusual  cold  and  draughts  in  the  show  -room 
or  during  shi])nient  from  one  place  to  another.  The 
birds  most  apt  to  be  affected  are  those  having  their 
strength  already  im])aired  by  insufficient  or  innutritious 
food,  by  lack  of  exercise  or  l)y  the  attacks  of  parasites. 
Treatment. —  Catarrh  is  best  prevented  by  keeping 
the  birds  in  a  .strong,  vigorous  condition  through  proper 
exercise,  good  food,  clean  houses  and  ventilation  with- 
out draughts.  In  case  Simiptoms  of  this  disease  are 
obser\'ed,  search  out  and  remove  the  cause,  and  give 
the  birds  stimulating  food  with  some  cayenne  pepper 
mixed  into  it. 

If  the  di.sease  appears  serious,  wash  out  the  mouth 
and  nostrils  twice  a  day  with  boric  acid  solution  of  the 
strength  of  fifteen  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  or 
creoline  solution  (one  percent) .  The  following  remedy 
is  highly  recommended  by  Megnin  : 

Gentian  root     ....     4  drams. 

Ginger 4 

Sulphate  of  iron     ...     2 

Hyposulphite  of  sodium   .1 

Salicylate  of  sodium  .      .     1 
These    substances   are    to    be    pulverized    and    then 
thoroughly  mixed.     The  dose  is  three  or  four  grains  a 
day  for  a  medium -sized  fowl.      Its  effects  are  stimulat- 
ing and  tonic. 

ROUP,  CONTAGIOUS  CATARRH. 

Although  much  has  been  written  upon  the  subject  of 
roup,  the  scientific  studies  of  the  disease  have  been  in- 
complete and  there  is  still  much  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  its  nature.     It  is  particularly  difficult,  from  pres- 


32  DISKASKS    OF    POri.TKY. 

ent  knowledj^c,  to  say  positively  whether  contagious 
catarrh  and  dijihtheria  are  essentially  one  and  the  same 
disease  or  whether  they  constitute  two  distinct  and  un- 
related ])laij:ues.  Considering  only  the  S3Mn])toms,  it  is 
])ossible  to  draw  a  sharp  and  definite  line,  as  most 
veterinary  writers  have  done,  placing  on  the  one  side 
all  those  outbreaks  which  have  only  catarrhal  manifes- 
tations, and  on  the  other  those  which  clearly  show  diph  - 
theritic  patches  with  false  membranes.  Dr.  Moore's 
investigations  seem  to  indicate  that  both  diseases  are 
caused  by  the  same  germ,  the  only  difference  being  in 
the  grade  of  virulence.  If  this  inference  should  prove 
correct,  it  would  justify  the  common  usage  of  applying 
the  term  roup  to  both  forms  of  disease.  At  present, 
however,  it  appears  preferable  and  in  accordance  with 
the  preponderance  of  evidence  to  descril:)e  them  as  two 
diseases  rather  than  as  two  forms  of  the  same  disease. 

Symptoms. —  The  early  symptoms  of  this  disease 
can  not  be  clearly  distinguished  from  those  of  simple 
catarrh,  though  the  dulness  and  prostration  are 
usually  greater  and  there  is  often  a  peculiar  offensive 
odor,  which  are  valuable  points  to  aid  in  reaching 
a  decision.  There  is  at  first  a  thin,  waterj-  discharge 
from  the  nostiils  with  some  obstruction  to  breathing 
from  swelling  of  the  mucous  membrane.  The  dis- 
charge soon  becomes  thicker  and  more  sticky  or 
glutinous,  causing  the  affected  birds  to  sneeze  and 
shake  their  heads  in  an  effort  to  free  the  air  passages. 
The  subjects  are  dull,  quiet,  without  much  appetite 
and  more  or  less  feverish.  The  plumage  is  rough,  the 
wings  pendant,  the  comb  and  wattles  dark  red. 

As  the  disease  advances,  the  inflammation  extends, 
from  the  nuicous  membrane  of  the  nostrils  along  the 
internal  surface  of  the  passage  connecting  the  nostrils 


DISKASKS    OF    POn.TKV. 


33 


vrilli  llic  orhital  s])ace  or  ca\'ily  .siirr()iin(liii<^  the  eyes. 
The  orbital  si)ace  in  birds  is  relatively  very  large  and 
has  an  angular  projection  towards  the  point  of  the  beak. 
There  is,  consequentl3%  considerable  space  between  the 
eye -ball  and  the  bon}-  walls  surronnding  it,  which  is 
known  as  the  orbital  space  or  or'oital  sinus.  This 
space  is  lined  with  a  mucous  nieni!)rane  which  is  con- 
tinuous with  that  of  the  nostrils  and  in  such  close  rela- 
tions with  it  that  an  inflammatory  process  readily  ex- 
tends from  one  to  the  other.  Very  often  in  roup,  this 
membrane  is  inflamed  throughout  these  passages,  and 
the  process  is  so  acute  that  the  surface  becomes  eroded 
and  ulcerated.     The  secretion,    instead   of   remaining 

fluid  as  in  simple  ca- 
tarrh, changes  at  this 
period,  is  abundant, 
thick,  yellowish  pu- 
rulent, and  cheesy. 
This  secret  io  n  ac- 
cumulates and  ob- 
structs the  passages. 
It  forms  around  the 
eye  and  forces  the 
eye -ball  out  of  the 
socket  and  at  the 
same  time  collects 
under  the  eyelids  or 
on  the  corner,  some- 
times sinuilating  a 
false  membrane.  It,  also,  i)lugs  the  nasal  passages, 
presses  down  the  palate,  obstructs  the  breathing  and 
may  prevent  swallowing. 

The    affected    l)irds   in   the   advanced   stages   of   the 
disease   present    a    most    miserable    appearence.     The 


Fig.  2.— Head  of  bird  affected  with 
cimtag-ious  catarrh. 


34  DiSHASi-s  oi-    ron.TRv. 

beak  is  kept  open  in  order  to  breathe,  the  sight  is  de- 
stroyed l>y  inflammatory  products,  the  eyes  are  often 
closed  and  liulging  from  the  head,  the  lireathing  is  very 
difficult,  a  thick,  sticky  discharge  escapes  from  the 
nostrils,  the  subjects  are  emaciated,  prostrated,  sleepy 
and  ])erhaps  unconscious.  When  these  severe  symp- 
toms ai)])ear,  the  strength  is  soon  exhausted  and  death 
follows. 

Contagious  catarrh  s])reads  ra])idly  through  a  flock, 
affecting  the  greater  ])art  of  the  birds  and  causing  the 
death  of  a  variable  i)roportion  according  to  the  viru- 
lence of  the  contagion.  It  is  always  a  very  serious 
disease  and  is  diflflcult  to  eradicate. 

Causation. —  That  roup  is  a  contagious  disease 
admits  of  no  question.  Its  origin  in  a  flock  can  fre- 
quently l)e  traced  to  the  introduction  of  a  bird  from 
some  other  premises  where  the  disease  exists.  Often,  it 
is  contracted  by  exposure  to  affected  birds  at  shows, 
or  to  the  contagion  clinging  to  coops,  houses  or 
infected  runs.  Many  writers  teach  that  roup  may 
originate  from  exposure  to  cold  or  draughts  of  air. 
This  prevalent  opinion  is  probably'  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  the  first  stages  of  roup  are  almost  identical 
in  their  symptoms  with  simple  catarrh  or  a  common 
-cold.  It  is  not  likely,  however,  that  such  exposure  is 
sufficient  to  produce  roup.  Contagious  diseases  are 
caused  by  parasites,  each  s])ecific  disease  having  its 
particular  species  of  animal  or  vegetable  life  to  call  it 
into  existence,  and  without  its  ])articular  ])arasite  the 
disease  cannot  be  devclo])ed.  It  is,  therefore,  logical 
to  conclude  that  if  the  germ  or  parasite  of  roup  is  not 
already  infecting  a  given  poultry  3'ard,  the  disease  will 
not  appear  until  this  ])arasite  is  introduced.  Colds  and 
catarrh  ma}'  become  aggravated  and  even  fatal  by  neg- 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  35 

lect  and  continued  exposure  to  the  existing  causes,  but 
the}'  will  not  develop  into  roup  unless  the  contagion  of 
the  last  named  disease  is  present. 

The  exact  species  of  organism  which  causes  roup 
can  not  be  certainly  determined  from  the  investigations 
so  far  made.  A  bacterial  organism  resembling  the 
bacillus  of  fowl  cholera  and  that  of  rabbit  septicaemia 
has  been  isolated  from  some  outbreaks.  Whether  this 
organism  or  some  other  form  of  microscopic  life  con- 
stitutes the  contagion  makes  little  difference  to  the 
practical  poultrj-man.  The  recognition  of  the  exist- 
ence of  contagion  in  some  form  is  the  most  important 
thing. 

Roup  is  a  contagious  disease  which  is  localized  upon 
the  mucous  membranes  of  birds.  That  is,  the  micro- 
scopic parasite  which  causes  the  disease,  develops  and 
multiplies  upon  and  within  the  mucous  membranes  of 
affected  birds;  escapes  from  their  bodies  with  the  dis- 
charge from  the  nostrils  and  eyes ;  soils  their  feathers, 
and,  also,  the  litter  and  other  objects  about  them; 
when  dried  it  is  dissipated  throughout  the  surrounding 
air  in  the  form  of  dust  by  every  movement  of  the  bird, 
or  of  the  soiled  objects,  and  by  every  breeze  that  dis- 
turbs the  contaminated  surfaces.  This  dust,  contain- 
ing the  germs  of  the  disease,  as  it  floats  in  the  air  is 
drawn  into  the  nostrils  with  the  breath  or  lodges  within 
the  eye.  When  the  germs  reach  the  moist  and  warm 
surfaces  of  the  membranes  lining  the  nostrils  or  eyes, 
they  find  favorable  conditions  for  their  continued  mul- 
tiplication. They  penetrate  the  membrane,  set  up  irri- 
tation and  inflammation,  and  as  a  result  of  this  action 
there  follow  catarrh,  ulceration  and  the  formation  of 
purulent  and  cheesy  deposits  about  the  head. 

Tkic.\tment. —  The  measures  to  be  adopted  for  the 


.Vi  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

prevention  c  I  roup  are  tne  same  as  tor  other  contagious 
diseases.  Exclude  the  contagion  by  every  means  that 
can  be  devised.  Do  not  allow  poultry,  animals  or  men 
to  come  directly  from  an  infected  premises  to  a  healthy 
flock.  Be  careful  in  buying  new  birds,  and  these  as 
well  as  all  birds  that  have  been  to  shows  should  be 
isolated  for  two  or  three  weeks  until  their  healthfulness 
is  demonstrated.  If  the  di.seas2  once  appears  in  the 
flock  use  disinfectants  freely  and  isolate  diseased  indi- 
viduals. If  the  birds  are  not  very  valuable  it  is  some- 
times better  to  dispose  of  every  one,  and  after  disin- 
fection begin  with  new  blood.  The  contagion  is  per- 
sistent and  can  only  be  eradicated  by  the  most  thorough 
measures. 

The  medical  treatment  may  be  undertaken  with  good 
chances  of  success,  but  requires  time  and  constant 
attention.  Whether  it  will  pay,  depends  upon  the 
value  of  the  birds  and  of  the  services  of  the  party  who 
cares  for  them.  Antiseptic  and  healing  applications 
are  indicated  to  the  interior  of  the  nostrils,  the  cleft  of 
the  palate,  the  eye,  and  other  affected  parts.  If  swell- 
ings containing  thick  pus  or  cheesy  matter  form  upon 
the  head,  they  should  be  opened  with  a  sharp  instru- 
ment, the  contents  removed  and  the  wound  treated 
■with  antiseptics.  Antiseptic  powders  are  convenient 
for  treating  the  wounds  caused  in  such  operations. 
Among  these  iodoform  and  aristol  are  the  best.  The 
wound  may  be  kept  filled  with  either  of  these  powders 
until  it  is  healed.  The  antiseptic  solutions  may  be 
injected  into  the  nostrils  or  into  the  cleft  in  the  roof  of 
the  mouth  which  communicates  with  the  nostrils,  by 
using  a  small  syringe,  a  medicine  dropper,  oreven  an  oil 
can,  such  as  is  used  for  oiling  machinery.  A  sj'ringe  is, 
of  course,  the  best.     The  solutions  most  suited  are  boric 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  37 

acid  fifteen  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water ;  carbolic  acid  or 
creoline  in  two  percent  solution;  peroxide  of  hj'dro- 
gen  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water;  perman- 
ganate of  potash  one  grain  to  the  ounce ;  or  sulphate 
of  copjier  five  grains  to  the  ounce.  Some  persons  have 
reported  great  success  from  the  use  of  coal  oil  (kero- 
sene) either  pure  or  diluted  with  equal  parts  of  olive 
oil.  Megnin  has  had  excellent  results  with  a  five  per 
cent  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  injected  into  the 
nostrils,  the  cleft  of  the  palate,  the  affected  ej'es  and 
the  wounds  made  in  removing  purulent  collections  from 
the  sinus  in  front  of  the  e\'es.  This  solution  appears 
rather  strong  and  should  be  used  at  first  with  care  and 
in  an  experimental  way  until  its  effects  are  seen. 
When  the  head  shows  signs  of  considerable  inflam- 
mation it  may  be  anointed  with  sweet  (olive)  oil,  vase- 
line, or  equal  parts  of  sweet  oil  and  coal  oil. 

In  selecting  from  the  remedies  mentioned,  it  is  well 
to  begin  with  the  milder  ones,  such  as  boric  acid,  per- 
oxide of  hydrogen  or  carbolic  acid.  Keep  the  birds 
comfortable  and  free  from  draugths  of  air.  Give  stimu  - 
lating  and  easih-  digested  food  containing  a  small  pro- 
portion of  meat  scrap.  One  writer,  Mr.  Mapes,  believes 
that  he  has  controlled  the  disease  effectually  with  a 
properly  balanced  ration.  It  is  important  to  dispose  of 
the  carcasses  of  dead  birds  promptly'  by  burning  or  deep 
burial. 

BRONCHITIS. 

Caus.\tion. —  Inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  trachea  and  bronchial  tubes,  or  bronchitis, 
is  sometimes  due  to  the  extension  of  the  catarrhal  pro- 
cess from  the  head,  or  it  maj-  be  induced  by  the  action 
of  the  causes  which  produce  catarrh.  The  most  fre- 
quent of  these   causes  are  exposure  to  dampness,  to 


38 


DISEASES    or    rOUI.TKY 


cold,  to  draughts  of  cold  air,  and  to  sudden  and  extreme 
changes  of  tcinperature.  This  disease  may,  also,  re- 
sult from  the  iuhalalion  of  irritating  vapors,  dust,  and 
other  foreign  substances.  A  careful  discrimination 
should  be  made  between  bronchitis  arising  from  such 
causes  and  that  due  to  contagious  catarrh  ( roup ) ,  tuber  - 
culosis,  gape  worms,  and  the  aspergillus  fungus. 

Symptoms. —  The  birds  are  some- 
what dull,  with  loss  of  appetite,  ac- 
celerated breathing  and  cough.  On 
listening  to  the  respiration  a  blow- 
ing or  whistling  sound  may  be  heard 
in  the  air  tubes,  in  the  early  stages 
of  the  disease,  caused  by  the  air 
being  drawn  over  the  dry  and  thick  - 
ened  membrane;  later,  a  rattling  oi 
bubbling  sound  is  heard  caused  by 
air  passing  through  accumulations 
of  mucus.  In  the  majority  of  cases 
the  sjmiptoms  are  not  serious,  and, 
under  favorable  conditions,  they 
soon  disappear.     Occasionally,  the 

.  .         .  .  ,  Fitr.  3.  — RifTlit   lunsi 

malady    mcreases    in    intensity,  the    of  a  troose;  «,  prinLiry 

,         ,  .  bronchus;  (''/'.  openintrs 

I)lumage  becomes  rough,  the  wings    throutrh  which  commu- 

.      ,     ,  ,  .      nication  is  established 

droop,  the  breathing  is  labored  and    wiui  the  air  sacs;  re, 

,.„        ,  ,         ,   ■     ■,     r  .1  secoiidarv  bronchi. 

difficult,   the  bird  frequently  opens 
its  beak  in  order  to  obtain  sufficient  air,  it   is  sleepy, 
torpid  and  exhausted.     In    such  severe  forms  of  the 
disease  a  large  proportion  of  the  affected  birds  die. 

Treatment. —  The  first  indication  in  simple  bron- 
chitis is  to  place  the  affected  birds  in  a  comfortable, 
drj^  and  reasonably  warm  place,  where  they  will  not  be 
subjected  to  draughts  of  air,  but  where  the  ventilation 
is  good.     Give  soft  and  cooling  food,  such  as  stale  bread, 


DISKASKS    OK    POrLTRY. 


39 


or  a  mixture  of  bran  and  middlings  moistened  with 
milk.  Inhalation  of  steam,  or  vapor  from  boiling  water 
in  which  hops  or  a  small  quantity  of  carbolic  acid 
or  crcoline  has  been  placed,  is  beneficial.  Give  with 
the  food  two  grains  of  black  antimony  twice  a  day.     A 

small  quantity  of 
flax  seed  steeped 
in  hot  water 
makes  a  demul- 
cent drink  that 
often  gives  great 
relief ;  and,  in  the 
absence  of  this, 
honey  or  gum 
arabic  ma 3'  be 
added  to  the 
drinking  water 
wich  advantage. 
If  the  attack  pro - 
mises  to  be 
severe,  it  may 
S  o  m  e  t  i  m  e  s  be 
checked  in  the 
early  stages  by 
giving  ten  drops 
of    s  ]D  i  r  i  t  s    of 

FifT.  4.  -LmifTof  a  bird  represented  in  ideal  Ion-  ^.,,^„p,,^:„„  ;,,  ^ 
pitudinal  section;  <;<?,  secondary  bronchi.  15.  dense  Llll  pcuLiiic  ui  ci 
network  of  minute  blood  vessels  which  makes  up  ^^  _„„„„,,  f,.  1  p,f 
the  trreater  part  of  the  lunp  tissue  and  to  which  the  ledblJUUlt  l  ill  ui 
tertiary  bronchi  convey  the  air.  CaStOroil  and  re- 

peating this  dose  after  five  or  six  hours.  It  should  not 
be  continued  after  there  are  signs  of  purging,  for  fear 
of  exhausting  the  strength  of  the  patient.  In  the  very 
acute  ca.ses,  where  the  whistling  or  snoring  sounds  with 
the   respiration   indicate  a  croupous  form  of  inflam- 


40  DISEASKS    nv    POri.TKV. 

niatit)n,  and  where  the  g^asjiin^  shows  g:reat  obstruction 
of  the  air])assage,  relief  may  be  obtained  bj'  giving  from 
three  to  six  drops  of  either  the  S3'ru])orthewineof  ipecac. 
Medicines  should  be  administered  very  carefully  in 
diseases  affecting  the  trachea  and  bronchi,  as  other- 
wise they  may  enter  the  air  passages  and  increase  the 
irritation. 

THE  g.\ph:s,  verminous  tr.\cheo-bronchitis, 

SVNGAMOSIS. 

The  gapes  is  a  parasitic  disease  of  lairds,  caused  1)}' 
the  presence  in  the  trachea  or  windpipe,  of  a  worm 
called  the  Sj'/ix'^aw//s  traclica/is.  The  most  prominent 
sj-mptom  of  this  disease  is  frequent  gaping,  and  from 
this  characteristic  the  affection  takes  its  name. 

History. —  The  gapes  appears  to  have  been  first  ob- 
served and  described  as  occurring  in  the  United  States. 
This  disease  was  seen  byDr.Wiesenthalinl799,  atBalti- 
more,  Md.,  where  he  states  it  affected  hens  and  turkeys. 
It  was  reported  by  Georges  Montagu  as  prevailing 
among  chickens  in  England  from  1806  to  1809.  This 
author  believed  that  chickens  were  the  only  occupants 
of  the  poultry  yard  which  l)ecome  its  victims,  since  he 
observed  turkeys  and  ducks  living  on  the  same  premises 
with  infested  chickens  but  remaining  free  from  the 
disease.  He  observed  that  pheasants  were  similarly 
affected  at  the  period  when  the  appearance  of  the  plum- 
age changes  so  that  the  sexes  can  be  distinguished. 
He  also  saw  the  disease  in  partridges. 

Both  Wiesenthal  and  Montagu  recognized  that  the 
disea.se  was  caused  by  worms  which  inhabited  the 
trachea,  producing  inflammation  and  obstructing  the 
passage  of  the  air. 

This  disease  has  been   very  prevalent  among  fowls 


diseasp:s  o?  poultry.  41 

and  game  birds  in  Kngland  during  the  last  twenty -five 
years  ;  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  it  destroys,  there, 
half  a  million  chickens  annually,  in  addition  to  the 
losses  among  game  and  other  birds.  It  has,  also, 
caused  serious  losses  in  France  for  more  than  forty 
years,  and  undoubtedly  exists  in  many  other  countries. 
In  the  United  States,  it  has  become  one  of  the  most 
common  and  most  troublesome  diseases  of  young 
chickens  and  young  turkeys,  but  adult  birds  as  a  rule 
do  not  suffer  from  it.  A  num1)er  of  species  of  wild 
birds  are  susceptible  to  this  disease  as  well  as  the 
domesticated  birds. 

Causation. —  The  single  cause  of  gapes  is  the  para- 
sitic worm  known  as  the  Synga)?iics  trachcalis.  This 
worm  is  represented  in  Fig.  5,  a  being  the  male  and  b 
the  female.  The  two  sexes  are  usually  joined  together 
in  a  permanent  manner  by  the  union  of  the  integuments, 
as  shown  in  the  figure. 

The  syngamus  is  a  small  round  worm,  red  in  color, 
and  both  the  male  and  female  are  found  attached  by 
their  mouths  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  bird's 
trachea.  The  female  is  slightly  more  than  one -half 
inch  in  length,  while  the  male  is  only  one -fifth  inch. 

They  suck  the  blood  of  the  bird,  which  forms  their 
nourishment,  and,  in  doing  this,  set  up  considerable  ir- 
ritation and  even  inflammation.  The  large  and  vig- 
orous birds  are  not  seriously  disturbed  by  the  ])resence 
of  this  parasite,  particularly  if  the  worms  are  not  very 
numerous.  Small  and  weak  birds,  however,  are  un- 
able to  successfully  resist  the  combined  effect  of  the 
loss  of  blood,  the  inflammation  of  the  trachea,  and 
the  obstructed  respiration.  The  strength  is  rapidly 
lost,  and  the  windpipe  becomes  obstructed  until  finally 
the   bird    dies  of   exhaustion  or  asphyxia. 


42 


DISEA'SKS    (IF    POULTRY. 


In  Fig.  6  D  the 
worms   are  shown 
attached  to  the 
mucons  membrane 
of  the   trachea. 
This  is  a  drawing 
from  the  windpipe 
of  a  pheasant,  that 
has  been  slit  open 
to  show  the  worms 
as  they  are  found 
in    affected    birds. 
In  this  bird  about 
thirty    pairs   of 
worms  were  found 
in  various  stages  of 
development,   and 
it  can  be  seen  that  the  obstruction 
of  the  air   passage   was   almost   or 
quite  complete.     A  larger  drawing 
of  a  pair  of  worms  is  seen  in  Fig.  7 
E,  which  also  illustrates  the  attach- 
ment of  the  worms  by  means  of  their 
mouths  to  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the   trachea.      A  pair  of  worms  is 
shown  still  more  enlarged  in  Fig.  5 ,  in  order  to  giv 


Fifr-  S.— A  pair  of 
sviicrames  etilarjfed 
seven  diameters!;  a, 
male ;  /',  female;  A, 
mouth  of  female  seen 
from  its  face;  15, 
mouth  of  female  seen 
from    it:,  side. 


e  some 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 


43 


I        a 


Fig.  o.— D,  trachea  of  pheasant  opened  to  show  syiifjames  (two-thirds  nat- 
ural size  .  I,  ova  in  ilifferent  stapes  of  developraent,  </,  setrniented  vitellu.s» 
1^.  granular  vitellus  becominfr  constricted  at  middle,  - .  ovum  with  embryo 
fully  developed,  i/,  ovum  with  valve  at  extremity  detached  and  embryo 
emeVfrintr;  K.  embryos,  </,  directly  after  leaving  etrtr,  /■,  undergoing'  the  first 
molt,  r.  nvmph  with  rudiments  of  genital  organ  showing  at  .v,  L,  diagram 
illustrating  manner  of  removingsyngames  with  wire,  horse-hair  or  feather. 


44  IHSl'.ASKS    OF    POn.TKV. 

jck-a  of  their  structure.  The  cu])  -sliajied  mouth ,  techni  - 
cally  called  the  buccal  capsule,  thea.'SO])ha^usand  thein  - 
testinal  canal  can  be  easily  made  out.  In  the  female,  /', 
can  be  faintly  seen  the  uterus  and  its  horns  filled  with 
ova,  or  eggs,  and  coiled  around  the  uterus  and  intes- 
tines is  the  clearly -defined  ovarian  tube.  In  the  male 
a  the  elongated  testicle  is  shown  coiled  about  the  diges- 
tive tube.  A,  shows  the  mouth  of  the  female  as 
seen  from  its  face;  and  B,  shows  the  same  part  as 
seen  from  the  side. 

The  rc])roductive  organs  of  the  female  are  seen  in 
Fig.  7  G,  in  which  a  represents  the  uterus,  /'/'  the  uterine 
horns,  rr  oviducts  or  Fallo])ian  tubes,  and  ^A/ ovaries. 
The  reproductive  organs  of  the  male  are  shown  in  Fig.  7 
H,  a  being  s]:)icules,  b  spermatic  canal,  c  vesicula  senii- 
nalis,  and  r/ testes.  Fig.  6  I,  is  a  drawing  of  the  ova,  or 
eggs,  in  different  stages  of  development.  The  seg- 
mented vitellus  appears  at  a  ;  at  /'  the  vitellus  is  granu- 
lar and  becoming  constricted  at  its  middle,  the  embryo 
developing  lateral!}',  c  shows  the  ovum  with  embryo 
fully  developed  and  folded  like  the  figure  8,  d  the  ovum 
with  the  valves  at  the  extremities  detached  and  the 
embrj'o  emerging. 

The  characters  of  the  embryos  are  clearly  shown  in 
Fig.  6  K,  where  a  represents  the  embryo  directly-  after  it 
leaves  the  Q^'g ;  b  is  an  embryo  somewhat  older  and 
undergoing  the  first  molt;  c  is  the  nj-mph,  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  genital  organ  showing  at  .v. 

Young  Inrds  become  infected  with  this  parasite  either 
by  eating  the  adult  worms,  containing  eggs,  which  are 
coughed  up  by  affected  birds,  or  bj^  taking  the  em- 
bryos with  the  food  or  drink.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
the  syngamus  should  ])ass  any  ]ieriod  of  its  existence 
outside  of  the  l)ird's  body,  although   it  is  capal;le  of 


DISK  ASKS    OK    POULTRY. 


45 


s\Vd\^ml^:'^r'f^'''''''  i'''''''''''i'J'  ^'^  reproductive  orprati..  of  female  en larped 
SIX  diameter;,  ;  «,  uterus,  /./.,  uterine  horns,  re.  oviducts,  ■/,/  ovaries-  H 
reproduct.veor^rans  of  male,  u,  spicules,  /■  spermatic  cknal,,vestcuTa 
sem.nal.s,./,  testes;  £,  pair  of  syn^ames,  illustratintr  attachment  To  tit 
raucous  membrane.  «»<-iiiiiriii   ui  me 


46  DISEASES    OF    POri.TKV. 

living  and  partially  devclojiing  under  such  conditions. 
The  ei^gs  niaj-  escape  from  the  adult  female  worm  in 
the  trachea  of  the  bird  and  these  eggs  may  hatch  and 
the  eml)r3'o  develop  in  the  trachea  of  the  same  bird. 
Hence  this  is  a  parasitic  disease  in  which  the  ])arasites 
may  continue'to  develop  and  increase  indefinite!}'  in 
the  body  of  the  host,  after  the  first  infection  has 
occurred.  As  the  syngamus  does  not  la^'  its  eggs, 
however,  and  as  the.se  are  onh'  freed  by  the  rupture  of 
the  body  of  the  adult  worm,  usually  after  its  death,  the 
most  frequent  course  of  reinfection  must  be  through  the 
digestive  organs  of  the  bird. 

When  the  adult  egg -bearing  worms  are  coughed  up 
by  diseased  birds,  these  worms  are  eagerly  seized  and 
devoured  1)y  chickens  or  grown  fowls.  In  such-cases, 
while  the  worm  is  no  doubt  digested  and  destroj'ed  in 
the  alimentary  canal  of  the  chicken,  the  eggs  which  it 
contained  are  hatched  and  some  of  the  embryos  find  their 
waj'  to  the  trachea  of  the  bird.  It  is  not  known  how 
these  embryos  travel  from  the  digestive  organs  to  the 
trachea.  No  doubt  the  path  is  a  difficult  and  danger- 
ous one  for  them;  because,  although  there  are  some 
thousands  of  eggs  in  the  adult  worms,  ten  or  fifteen 
worms  have  been  fed  to  a  single  chicken,  and,  as  a 
result,  not  over  four  or  five  embrj^os  would  reach  and 
develop  in  the  trachea.  Probably  a  great  many  of  the 
eggs  pass  through  the  intestines  and  are  voided  with 
the  excrement  before  they  hatch. 

The  eggs,  or  the  embryos,  or  both,  of  the  sj-ngamus 
are  undoubtedly  scattered  over  the  grounds  w^here  the 
infested  chickens  run.  Some  of  these  pass  through  the 
digestive  organs  and  are  scattered  with  the  excrement 
as  just  suggested ;  others  are  coughed  up  and  out  of  the 
mouth,  or  the   adult  worms  may  be  coughed  up,  and 


DISEASES    OE    POUI.TKV. 


47 


Fig--  8.— Chicken  affected  with  g-ai>es. 

the  eggs  and  embryos  are  set  free  by  the  disintegra- 
tion of  the  worm.  The  eggs  require  warmth  and 
moisture  to  hatch,  and  similar  conditions  are  needed 
for  the  life  of  the  embryos.  These  newly -hatched  em- 
bryos may  be  at  once  taken  up  by  birds,  with  contami- 
nated food  or  drink,  and  thus  cause  infection ;  or  they 
may  be  taken  into  the  digestive  canal  of  earth  worms, 
as  has  been  shown  by  Walker,  and  be  carried  for  some 
time  by  such  earth  worms.  It  has  been  shown  conclu  - 
sively  that  earth  worms  from  infected  poultry  runs  will 
cause  gapes  if  fed  to  chickens.  Whether  or  not  the 
earth  worm  plays  an  important  part  in  sheltering  and 
protecting  the  embryos  of  the  syngamus  and  in  thus 
maintaining  the  infection  upon  certain  premises  is  not 
definitely  known. 

Walker  considers  the  earth  worm  a  very  important 


48  DISKASHS    OF    POULTKY. 

factor  in  keeping  up  infection,  and  has  proposed  the 
destruction  of  these  worms  bj'  saturating  the  soil  with 
a  solution  of  common  salt.  Whether  this  will  kill  or 
drive  away  the  earth  worms  which  are  in  tlie  soil  has 
not  been  satisfactorily  demonstrated. 

Symptoms. —  The  disease  is  observed  most  frequently 
in  young  birds  from  one  to  four  weeks  old.  The 
affected  individuals  are  seen  to  be  less  lively  than 
usual ;  they  extend  the  head  frequently  and  widely 
open  the  beak — that  is,  they  gape.  If  watched,  they 
are  seen  to  gape  ever^^  minute  or  two,  and  as  the  dis- 
ease progresses,  this  gaping  is  repeated  several  times  a 
minute. 

The  birds  soon  begin  to  cough,  making  a  sudden, 
whistling  sound  something  like  a  sneeze,  whitish 
mucus  may  be  rejected  from  the  nostrils  or  mouth,  or 
worms  (syngames)  may  be  coughed  up.  If  badly 
affected  the  })irds  become  anaemic  and  weak ;  the 
feathers  are  roughened  ;  the  wings  droop  ;  the  neck  is 
shortened  or  drawn  up,  except  when  extended  for 
gaping;  the  l)ird  shakes  its  head,  often  convulsiveh', 
as  if  trj-ing  to  get  rid  of  a  foreign  body  in  its  throat. 
The  affected  birds  are  no  longer  alile  to  keeji  up  with 
the  fiock  to  which  they  belong,  they  lag  behind,  stop 
as  if  exhausted,  stand  with  closed  eyes  and  allow  them- 
selves to  be  easily  caught.  At  this  period  the\'  are 
liable  to  attacks  of  suh'ocation,  from  which  the}-  may 
die  suddenl}'.  Others  apparently  die  from  weakness 
and  exhaustion. 

The  stronger  birds,  particularly  if  only  infested  with 
a  few  worms,  and  the  older  and  larger  birds,  are  not 
so  severely  affected.  The}'  gape  occasionally,  but  their 
general  health  is  not  impaired.     Their  strength  is  re- 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTKY.  49 

tained,  they  search  for  and  take  the  usual  quantit)'  of 
food  and  they  soon  res^ain  llieir  former  activity'. 

The  nature  of  the  disease  ma}-  l)e  readil_v  determined 
from  the  s^-mptoms  above  e:iumerated.  If,  however, 
there  is  aiu'  doubt,  the  trachea  of  a  l)ird  which  has 
died  from  the  disease  shouhl  lie  slit  o])en  and  examined 
for  the  syn.^;anuis.  In  case  no  birds  have  died,  one  of 
the  methods  for  extractini^  the  worms  from  the  trachea 
of  the  livint;  ])ird  should  be  tried  ( see  treatment) .  It 
is  im])ortant  to  the  poultryman  that  the  nature  of  the 
disease  should  be  detected  as  soon  as  ])ossible  after  it 
appears  ujion  his  ])remises  in  order  that  ])rccautions 
may  be  taken  to  sto])  the  sj^iread  of  the  infection  and  to 
eradicate  it  from  the  ])lace. 

Tkkat:\ikxt. —  Separate  the  sick  birds  from  the  well 
ones  as  soon  as  the  disease  is  detected  and  clean  u]) 
the  coops,    pens   and   houses   where   they  have   been. 

Disinfect  all  these  ])laces  and  also  the  drinkint^troughs 
or  cups  with  a  five  per  cent  solution  of  crude  carbolic 
acid  or  witli  boiling  water.  Burn  the  bodies  of  the 
birds  which  die.  Keej)  the  infected  birds  in  a  house 
which  can  l)e  easih'  cleaned  and  disinfected,  and  see 
that  this  house  is  kept  disinfected  with  hot  water  or 
five  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solution.  Megninrt-com- 
raends  for  disinfecting  enclosures  and  contaminatt-d 
runs,  sprinkling  with  a  solution  of  one  part  of  salicylic 
or  sul])b.uric  acid  in  one  hundred  of  water.  Provide 
pure  water  and  uninfected  food. 

By  careful  mani])ulation  the  worms  may  often  lie  re- 
moved from  the  trachea  and  the  chicken  radically  cured 
in  that  way.  To  accomplish  this  either  a  feather  or  a 
long  hair  from  the  horse's  tail  may  be  used.  If  a  feather 
is  selected  it  is  stri])i)ed  of  the  web  excejit  n.-ar  the  ti]). 
This  may  be  used  dry  or  it  nuiy  be  moistened  with  coal 


50  1)I.si-;asi:s  oi"  i'oii.tkv. 

oil  or  oil  of  turpentine.  If  a  horse -hair  is  to  1)e  used 
it  is  folded  and  the  two  ends  twisted  to.ii:ether  so  as  to 
leave  a  small  loop  at  the  folded  extremity.  To  extract 
the  worms  the  chicken's  mouth  is  forced  open  with  the 
fingers  of  the  left  hand  (  Fii?.  6  L)  and.  when  the  j^lottis 
opens  for  breathinj^,  the  feather  or  hair  is  thrust  into 
the  opening  and  downward  into  the  trachea.  It  is  then 
turned  or  twisted  around  several  times  and  withdrawn, 
when  one  or  more  worms  may  be  found  adhering  to  it, 
or  in  other  cases  are  coughed  up,  having  been  loosened 
by  the  feather  or  hair.  These  worms  should  all  be 
burned  as  they  are  capable  of  spreading  the  infection. 
Great  care  should  be  used  in  these  manipulations  as 
the  larynx  and  trachea  are  very  tender  and  sensitive 
and  are  liable  to  serious  injury  from  a  broken  or  rough 
feather ;  or  the  bird  may  be  suffocated  by  obstructing 
the  breathing  for  too  long  a  time. 

Internal  treatment  is  highly  recommended  by  some 
authorities.  Megnin  had  excellent  results  in  treating 
affected  pheasants  with  garlic.  He  made  a  mixture 
consisting  of  hard-boiled  eggs,  boiled  beef's  heart,  the 
crumbs  of  stale  bread  and  salad.  These  ingredients 
were  chopped,  pounded  and  thoroughly  mixed  so  as  to 
make  a  paste.  To  this  paste  was  added  pounded  garlic 
in  the  proportion  of  one  bulb  to  ten  pheasants  each  day, 
the  garlic  being  thoroughly  distributed  through  the 
l^aste.  This  mixture  was  greatly  relished  by  the  birds. 
Others  wdio  tried  this  remedy  found  that  the  birds  re- 
fused to  eat  it,  but  that  they  would  eat  garlic  in  the 
form  of  a  salad.  Megnin  also  recommends  assafoetida, 
seven  and  one -half  grains  daily  to  a  pheasant,  used  as 
a  powder  combined  with  an  eciual  quantity  of  yellow 
pulverized  gentian  and  mixed  with  the  paste  that  was 


DISKASES    OF    POULTRY.  51 

fed  to  the  birds.  He  asserts  that  this  treatment  suc- 
ceeded comi)letel3'  within  a  few  days. 

Some  have  olitained  satisfactory  results  by  adminis- 
tering camphor  in  the  form  of  pills,  the  dose  being  one- 
half  to  one  grain  twice  a  day.  Others  have  succeeded 
with  sulphur,  giving  one  to  three  grains  at  a  dose. 

Those  engaged  in  raising  birds  should  depend  rather 
on  prevention  than  cure.  The  value  of  a  three-weeks- 
old  chicken  is  not  sufficient  to  justify  a  great  expendi- 
ture of  time  in  its  treatment.  The  effort  should  be 
made  to  place  the  young  birds  on  uninfected  ground, 
or  the  runs  should  be  kept  thoroughly  disinfected.  On 
the  first  appearance  of  the  disease  remove  and  isolate 
the  affected  birds  and  take  the  necessary  precautions  to 
secure  the  destruction  of  all  the  parasites  they  contain. 
By  such  measures  the  propagation  of  the  worm  will  be 
prevented  and  the  extension  of  the  disease  will  be 
avoided. 

SVNGAMUS    BRONCHIALIS. 

A  worm  closely  related  to  the  Syngaitnis  tracheal  is 
has  been  described  in  Europe  as  affecting  young  ducks 
and  goslings.  It  is  found  in  the  finer  bronchial  tubes 
preventing  the  ingress  of  air  and  causing  death  from 
asphj^xia.  It  sets  up  much  irritation  and  even  causes 
croupal  pneumonia.  The  symptoms  are  similar  to 
those  caused  by  the  Synganuis  trachcalis,  but  more 
violent,  and  sudden  deaths  due  to  obstruction  of  the 
air  tubes  are  common.  This  worm  has  been  named 
the  Synga))iHS  bronchialis,  and  is  combated  by  the  pre- 
ventive measures  and  internal  remedies  recommended 
for  the  Syngamus  trachcalis. 

CONGESTION    OF    THE    LUNGS,    PULMONARY 
.     CONGESTION. 

Congestion  of  the  lungs,  or  engorgement  of  the  pul  - 


52  DISEASKS    or    POULTRY. 

monary  l)lood -vessels  is  a  disease  which  quite  fre- 
(liiently  affects  birds  that  are  molting,  and  also  young 
chickens,  ducks,  goslings,  pheasants,  and  cage  birds. 
The  distention  of  the  blood-vessels  which  are  very 
abundant  in  the  lungs,  causes  pressure  upon  the  finer 
bronchi  and  air  cells  and  may  lead  to  death  from  as 
phyxia.  Or  there  may  be  rupture  of  the  vessels  and 
the  escape  of  blood,  which  blocks  up  the  bronchi  and 
alveoli  and  collects  in  the  air  sacs.  In  either  case  death 
soon  results. 

Causation. —  This  disease  is  generally  caused  by 
exposure  to  cold  and  the  chilling  of  the  surface  of  the 
bodjs  which  leads  to  contraction  of  the  external  blood- 
vessels and  forces  an  undue  amount  of  blood  into  the 
internal  organs.  It  is  seen  in  fowls  that  are  molting 
and  which  are  exposed  to  cold  draughts  or  rain  while 
the  skin  is  over -sensitive  and  partially  denuded.  It 
also  occurs  in  3'oung  birds  which,  for  anj'  reason,  are 
not  kept  sufficiently  warm.  It  is  common  among 
young  chickens  and  turkeys  allowed  to  run  out  in  the 
rains  of  earlj'  Spring,  and  among  incubator  chicks  that 
are  allowed  to  get  chilled. 

Congestion  of  the  lungs  maj-  also  occur  in  full-fed, 
plethoric  birds  from  over -abundance  and  too  great 
richness  of  the  blood.  This  liquid  then  becomes  thick 
and  circulates  with  more  difficulty  than  when  in  a 
normal  condition;  the  delicate  vessels  in  the  lungs  be- 
come clogged,  distended  and  finally  ru]:)tured.  This 
form  of  the  disease  is  the  result  of  improper  feeding 
and  lack  of  exercise  and  is  seen  most  frequently  in 
cage  birds. 

Symptoms. —  The  affected  bird  breathes  rapidly  and 
with  difficulty.  It  is  indisposed  to  move,  stupid,  sleepy, 
and  does  not  notice  what  is  going  on  about  it.     Thick 


DISKASES    OF    POUI.TRV.  53 

mucus  tinged  with  blood  may  escape  from  the  mouth. 
The  comb  is  dark  red  or  l)luish  trom  hick  of  oxygen 
in  the  l)lood.  The  sjanptoms  ai)])ear  suddenly  and  the 
bird  lives  but  a  few  minutes  or  hours. 

Trkatmi-:nt. —  The  treatment  of  congestion  of  the 
lungs  in  birds  must  consist  entirely  of  measures  for  its 
l^revention,  since  the  course  of  the  disease,  when  it  has 
once  developed,  is  exceedingly  ra])id  and  fatal.  Young 
birds  and  fowls  which  are  molting  should  1)e  guarded 
from  exposure  and  cold,  ])articularly  when  wet.  Birds 
in  confinement  should  V)e  given  a  varied  ration  with 
green  food,  roots,  or  fruit  and  plent}-  of  exercise. 
When  birds  are  dj-ing  from  any  cause  a  careful  exami- 
nation of  the  carcasses  should  be  made.  If  the  lungs 
are  found  very  dark  in  color  and  distended  with  blood, 
particularly  if  blood  has  escaped  into  the  bronchi  and 
air  sacs  from  ruptured  vessels,  this  indicates  the  nature 
of  the  disease  and  should  lead  to  the  adoption  of  proper 
measures  of  i)revention.  Medical  treatment  of  sick 
birds  is  impracticable  on  account  of  the  rajiid  progress 
of  the  disease. 

PNEU.MOXIA,   INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    LUNOS. 

One  of  the  most  common  diseases  with  our  four- 
footed  animals  is  inilammation  of  the  lungs,  technically 
called  pneumonia,  l)ut  this  malady  appears  to  be  much 
less  common  with  birds.  Some  veterinarians  who 
have  given  considerable  study  to  this  sul)ject  state  that 
they  have  never  seen  typical  pneumonia  in  these 
'creatures.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  tliat  it  does 
occur  quite  frequently,  and  that  it  is  essentialh-  the 
same  in  symptoms,  nature,  and  effect  as  the  pneumonia 
of  mammals. 

Pneumonia   is   an   alteration    of  the  lungs  which  is 


54  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

one  step  beyond  congestion.  If  a  bird  is  affected  with 
congestion  of  the  lungs  and  does  not  die  or  recover 
within  a  few  hours,  the  disease  may  develop  into 
pneumonia.  In  this  disease  there  is  not  only  disten- 
tion of  the  l)loodves.seIs,  as  with  congestion,  but  there 
is  thrown  out  from  these  vessels  a  liquid  which  fills 
the  air-cells  and  by  coagulating  forms  a  semi-solid, 
gelatinous  substance,  that  excludes  the  air  and  renders 
the  lungs  useless  for  respiration.  The  lung  is  then 
darker  in  color  than  in  health,  and  when  pressed  upon 
gives  a  sensation  of  firmness  and  solidity  comparable 
with  the  liver;  therefore,  the  lung  in  that  condition  is 
said  to  be  hepatized. 

Causation. —  Two  factors  are  believed  to  work  to- 
gether in  the  production  of  pneumonia.  There  must 
be  the  conditions  which  produce  congestion,  viz., 
refrigeration,  chilling  of  the  surface  of  the  body,  dis- 
turbance of  the  general  circulation  from  some  cause, 
inhalation  of  irritating  vapors  or  plethora ;  and  there 
must  apparently  be  something  else.  This  additional 
factor  is  in  many  cases,  at  least  with  the  larger  animals 
and  man,  a  species  of  the  bacteria.  The  same  proba- 
bly holds  true  with  birds. 

It  appears  that  the  bacteria  which  change  congestion 
into  inflammation  are  germs  which  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances are  harmless,  and  which  may  often  be 
found  upon  the  surface  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
healthy  animals.  Now,  if  there  are  simultaneou.sly  in 
the  same  animal,  germs  which  are  sufficiently  active, 
and,  also,  a  congestion  of  the  lungs,  there  have  been 
brought  together  the  conditions  required  to  develop 
pneumonia. 

Symptoms. —  The  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  seen 
in    pulmonary   congestion.     The   breathing    is   rapid^ 


riSKASKS    (11"    POULTRY.  D^) 

difficult,  and  painful.  There  may  be  coughing 
with  discharge  from  the  mouth  or  nostrils  of  thick,  ad- 
hesive mucus,  grayish  or  yellowish  in  color  or  tinged 
with  blood.  The  bird  stands  with  ruffled  plumage, 
drooping  wings,  head  drawn  in,  and  everj^  appearance 
of  severe  illness.  There  is  loss  of  appetite  from  the 
first,  with  thirst  and  constipation. 

On  examination  of  the  lungs  after  death  one  or  both 
of  these  organs  are  found  dark  in  color,  engorged  with 
blood  and  solidified.  The  pneumonia  may  take  either 
one  of  two  forms.  There  may  be  what  is  known  as 
broncho -pneumonia,  in  which  case  the  infiammation 
affects  more  particularly  the  l^ronchi  and  the  lung  is 
not  much  solidified.  The  bronchial  tul)es  in  this  case 
are  more  or  less  filled  with  thick  mucus  and  exudate. 
In  the  other  form,  called  croupous  pneumonia,  the  tis- 
sue of  the  lung  is  principally  affected.  It  is  then  that 
the  lung  is  solidified  by  the  filling  up  of  the  air- 
cells.  A  piece  of  lung  so  affected,  if  dropped  into  a 
bucket  of  water,  sinks  to  the  bottom  while  healthy 
lung  tissue  wmII  float.  The  bronchial  tubes  and  air- 
sacs  are  also  in  some  cases  filled  with  a  thick,  yellow- 
ish fibrinous  exudate  which  blocks  up  these  air -pas- 
sages and  becomes  partly  solidified. 

Treatment. — This  is  a  rapid  and  fatal  disease  with 
birds  and  one  in  which  treatment  is  very  unsatisfactory. 
The  bird  should  first  of  all  be  taken  into  a  warm  room 
and  covered  with  a  piece  of  blanket,  if  the  weather  be 
at  all  cold,  leaving  its  head  uncovered,  so  that  there 
will  be  no  obstruction  to  its  supply  of  fresh  air.  It 
should  be  given  linseed  tea  frequently,  but  a  small 
quantity  at  a  time,  as  a  drink.  This  tea  is  made  by 
pouring  a  pint  of  boiling  water  on  an  ounce  of  flaxseed 
and  kee])ing  the  mixture  hot  but  not    boiling   for   two 


56  I)Isi:a.si:s  oi-   poi'i.tky. 

hours.  The  seeds  are  then  removed  by  straining  and 
the  niucilajjinous  li(iuid  which  has  valua1)le  demulcent 
properties  may  be  kept  l)efore  the  affected  bird  as  a 
simple  drink  or  it  may  also  be  used  as  a  vehicle  for 
certain  medicines.  Sufficient  nitrate  of  potash  should 
be  dissolved  in  the  drink  so  thatthe  bird  will  take  about 
one  strain  three  times  a  day.  If  the  patient  appears  to  be 
failing  and  becomes  very  sleepy  with  a  dark  bluish 
color  of  the  comb  and  gills,  mix  fifteen  drops  of  tinct- 
ure of  digitalis  with  one  ounce  of  water  and  adminis- 
ter ten  drops  of  this  mixture  every  two  hours.  In 
dropping  such  medicines  it  is  best  to  use  a  medicine 
dropper,  as  drops  of  more  uniform  size  are  obtained. 
Great  care  should,  also,  be  ol)served  in  administering 
the  medicine  to  avoid  its  getting  into  the  air -passages 
and  causing  strangulation.  When  the  bird  begins  to 
improve,  a  grain  of  cjuinine  or  ten  drops  of  cod  liver 
oil  twice  a  da\',  will  hasten  recover}'.  The  food  dur- 
ing sickness  and  recovery  should  be  nutritious  and 
digestible.  A  small  (luantity  of  warm  milk,  or  milk  and 
egg  beaten  together,  or  chopped  raw  beef  may  be  offered 
from  time  to  time,  while  the  attack  lasts  and  as  the 
appetite  returns  gradually  replace  with  mash  or  more 
solid  articles  of  food.  The  disease  may  be  prevented  by 
the  measures  mentioned  in  the  article  on  congestion  of 
the  lungs. 

MYCOSIS    OF    THE    AIR -PASSAGES,    OR   ASPERGILLOSIS. 

Several  species  of  fungi  or  molds  may  develop  with  - 
in  the  air -passages  of  animals,  and  particularly  of 
birds,  and  cause  serious  disease.  These  fungi  all  be- 
long to  the  genus  Aspergillus,  the  parasitic  species 
being  in  the  order  of  their  importance  as  follows : 
Aspergillus Jumiiiatus,  Aspergillus  yiigreseens,  As-per- 


ins  H  ASKS    OF    POri.TKV. 


57 


gillns  glancus,  and  Aspcrt^illus  ca)ididus.  Usually 
these  fungi  are  found  in  nature  growing  upon  dead 
organic  matter;  but  they  have  great  vegetative  and 
resisting  power  and  are  able  to  adapt  themselves  to 
various  conditions  of  existence.   Many  species  of  birds 

are  affected  by 
them,  the  dis- 
ease caused  by 
their  develop- 
ment having  been 
observed  in  pig- 
eons, pheasants, 
fowls,  ducks, 
geese  and  swans, 
as  well  as  in  vari  - 
ous  cage  and 
wildl)irds.  Pam- 
pered and  deli- 
cate birds  are  be- 
lieved to  be  most 
/requently  at- 
tacked. The  dis- 
ease may  take  on 
the  characters  of 
an  epizootic  and 
attack      a     large 

Fip.  9. --Dia^'-rammatic  representation  of  tlu"  air"    numl)er    of     indi - 
.^acs  stiowintr  tUflr  relation  loeacli  other,   and   to 
the  lunf^s.     A,   trachea;    B,  interclavicular  sac;     viduals. 
C,  I).  E,  F,  extensions  of  the  interclavicular   sac; 

G,  anterior  thorocic  sac;  H.    humerus:    I,    jxister-       SVMPTOMS. In 

ior  thoracic  sac;  J,  entrance  of  bronchial    mem- 
brane; K,  abdominal  sac.  the    early    stages 

of  the  disease  no  symptoms  are  noticed,  and  it  is  only 
after  it  has  progressed  considerably  that  these  be- 
come apparent.  The  affected  birds  do  not  follow  the 
flock ;  they  are  very  weak,  scarcely  able  to  stand,  and, 


58  DISKASKS    OF    I'Ori.TRV. 

consequently,  remain  by  themselves  and  move  about 
very  little.  They  remain  in  a  recumbent  position, 
resting  upon  the  sternum,  are  sleep}',  and,  if  forced  to 
run,  soon  fall  from  exhaustion.  The  plumage  is  dull 
and  rough,  the  wings  are  pendant,  the  eyelids  partly 
closed,  the  head  de])ressed.  The  respiration  is  accel- 
erated and  accompanied  by  a  rattling  or  snoring  sound, 
particularly  during  the  expiration,  and  becomes  diffi- 
cult and  labored,  the  bird  opening  its  l>eak  from  time 
to  time,  in  order  to  take  a  long  inspiration.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  body  is  elevated,  the  thirst  increai-ed 
and  the  appetite  is  diminished  or  disappears.  There 
is  more  or  less  catarrh  of  the  trachea  and  bronchi, 
with  emaciation  and  diarrhea  leading  to  death  from 
exhaustion  in  from  one  to  eight  weeks.  When  the 
disease  is  limited  to  the  air -sacs  of  the  interior  of  the 
body,  emaciation  may  be  the  only  symptom  ;  but  when 
it  extends  to  the  bones  there  may  be  lameness  with 
swollen  and  painful  joints. 

In  examining  the  birds  after  death,  the  seat  of  the 
disease  may  be  found  in  the  trachea,  l)ronchi,  lungs, 
the  various  air -sacs,  and  other  internal  organs.  It  is 
sometimes,  though  rareljs  found  in  the  nostrils  and  in 
the  air -sacs  of  the  interior  of  the  bones.  Two  kinds 
of  lesions  are  found.  There  may  be  tubercles  re- 
sembling closely'  those  of  tuberculosis.  These  are 
whitish  or  yellowish  nodules  varying  from  the  size  of 
a  pinhead  to  that  of  a  pea.  They  may  be  isolated  or 
joined  together  in  masses  of  considerable  proportions. 
These  tubercles  are  generally  found  in  the  depth  of 
the  tissues,  and  even  in  the  marrow  of  the  bones.  On 
the  mucous  membrane liningthe air-tubes andair-sacs, 
the  second  form  of  disease  process  is  seen.  This  con- 
sists of  a  membranous  formation,  an  eighth  of  an   inch 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 


59 


or  more  in  thickness,  which  bears  upon  its  surface  a 
growth  of  the  fungus.  These  membranous  patches  are 
at  first  soft,  but  become  firmer  with  age,  and  are  yel- 
lowish or  greenish  in  color,  resembling  a  fibrino -puru- 
lent exudate.  They  adhere  closely  to  the  mucous 
membrane  which  is  there  thickened  and  inflamed. 
The  air -sacs  are  sometimes  obstructed  by  these 
growths  which  may  in  time  become  caseous  or  even 
calcareous.  These  changes  may  also  be  seen  in  the 
intestines,  the  mesentery,  the  liver  and  in  other  organs. 


Filer.    W.—Asf-er^iV/iix      g/muiis,  Fig.    W.—Aspci-gil/iis   fionigatux 

(7<7,  mvceliuin. /•/•,"  spore   bearing-  with    conidia     t)earers;  r;(7,fruit 

stalks:  rr.  supports  of  the  spores;  heads  in     optical   cross- section; 

//.chains  of   spores;    gg,  bluish  /.,  fruit  heads  seen  from  above, 
green  spores. 

The  membrane  lining  the  air -passages  may,  also, 
be  found  ulcerated,  and  the  ulcers  may  be  either  naked 
or  covered  with  a  growth  of  the  fungus.  There  is 
often  seen  in  the  mouth  of  pigeons  a  whitish  nodule, 
the  size  of  a  pea  or  larger,  which  is  called  a  ranker. 
This  is  believed  by  some  authorities  to  be  caused  by 
the  aspergillus. 

In  the  very  acute  and  rapid  cases,  the  lungs  may 
simply  show  inflammation,  or  there  may  be  formation 
of  pus  or  abscesses  in  the  lungs,  kidneys,  liver  and 
spleen  as  in  pyccmia  or  septic    infection.      In    some   of 


60  DISlvASKS    or    POULTKV. 

.these  cases  there  may  Ije  extensive  hemorrhages,  either 
locally  or  throughout  the  body,  and  these  may  con- 
stitute the  only  apparent  alterations. 

A  microscopic  examination  reveals  the  spores  or  fila- 
ments of  the  fungus  in  most  of  the  lesions,  whether 
these  are  acute  or  chronic.  The  nature  of  the  disease 
maj'  consequently  be  determined  bj-  a  posi-niortevi  ex- 
amination, but  the  diagnosis  is  uncertain  and  difficult 
during  the  life  of  the  bird. 

Causation. —  The  various  species  of  Aspcrgilli 
which  cause  this  disease  exist  abundantly  in  nature 
and  develop,  particularly  in  some  warm  summers, 
upon  all  kinds  of  straw  and  grains.  When  musty 
straw  or  musty  grain  is  thrown  to  the  fowls  the 
exciting  cause  of  the  disease  is  placed  before  them. 
As  little  care  is  exercised  to  remove  this  dust  be- 
fore straw  is  placed  in  the  scratching -pens,  or  before 
grain  is  fed,  vast  numbers  of  the  spores  of  these  parasitic 
fungi  are  inhaled.  This  explains  why  the  disease  is 
generally  found  in  the  air-tubes,  the  lungs,  and  the 
air -sacs.  Although  many  birds  are  exposed,  but  a 
comparatively  small  number  are  affected.  These  are 
probabl}^  more  or  less  predisposed.  It  has  been  ob- 
served, in  fact,  that  the  delicate  breeds,  or  the  delicate 
and  weak  individuals,  are  most  sul)ject  to  the  disease. 
Some  authors  are  of  the  opinion  that  colds,  irritation 
of  the  mucous  membrane,  or  other  forms  of  disease 
generally  formthestartingpoint  of  this  mj'cosis.  It  is, 
also,  probable  that  the  numl)er  of  spores  taken  into 
the  air -tubes  or  digestive  organs  has  great  influence  in 
determining  the  result. 

Pkkvkntion. — As  this  disease  is  caused  by  the 
spores  of  pathogenic  fungi  which  have  developed  upon 


disp:asks  of  poultry.     .  61 

grain  or  straw,  or  similar  substances,  and  as  these 
spores  must  be  inhaled  with  the  breath  or  swallowed 
with  the  food,  it  is  generally  easy  to  guard  against 
them.  To  accomplish  this,  avoid  musty  straw,  or  musty 
or  moldy  food.  If  grain  or  straw  is  very  dusty  remove 
this  dust  by  appropriate  means  before  it  is  put  where 
fowls  have  access  to  it.  Keep  the  houses  clean,  dry, 
and  well  ventilated  in  order  to  prevent  the  accumula- 
tion of  such  spores.  Destroy  by  fire  or  deeply  bury 
the  carcasses  of  birds  which  die. 

Treatment. —  This  disease  when  once  established 
is  usually  fatal,  notwithstanding  medical  treatment. 
Fumigation  with  tar  vapor  has  been  recommended. 
This  is  accomplished  by  shutting  the  fowls  in  a  tight 
room,  placing  a  tablespoonful  of  wood  tar  on  a  pint  of 
water  and  stirring  with  a  red-hot  iron.  The  fowls  are 
forced  to  breathe  this  vapor,  which  should  not  be  so 
dense  as  to  cause  much  irritation  of  the  respiratory 
apparatus.  The  experiments  of  Lucet  indicate  that 
Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic  and  particularly  the  tinct- 
ure of  iodine  injected  hypodermically  have  consider- 
able influence  in  retarding  the  disease  in  rabbits.  In 
the  canker  of  pigeons,  if  other  treatment  fails,  tincture 
of  iodine  may  be  applied  to  the  affected  part  with  a 
small  brush  or  swab.  In  other  forms  of  the  disease 
in  birds  the  internal  administration  of  tincture  of 
iodine  or  iodide  of  potassium  should  be  tried.  No 
form  of  treatment  yet  suggested,  however,  is  very 
promising  and  the  effort  should  be  to  prevent  rather 
than  to  cure. 

>  THE  AIR-SAC  MITE. 

The  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  respiratory  organs 
in  birds  has  led  to  the  development  of  a  form  of  para- 


62 


DisKASEs  or   POn.TKV. 


sitism  which  is  not  seen  in  our  other  domesticated 
animals.  One  of  the  mites  has  domiciled  itself  in  the 
air -sacs  of  the  gallinaceous  birds,  especially  in  poultry 
and  pheasants,  and  is  found  at  times  in  great  numbers 
even  iu  the  abdominal  sacs  and  in  those  which  pene- 
trate the  bones.  This  mite,  called  the  Cylodili's  vuduSy 
is  closely  related  to  those  mites  which  live  upon  the 
skin  and  cause  mange  or  scabies.  Indeed,  when  first 
discovered  it  was  supposed  by  Gerlach  to  be  one  of 
the  mange  insects  and  to  cause  an  internal  form  of 
that  disease. 

Careful  study  has  shown  that  while  the  Cytodites  is 
closely  related  to  the 
mange  acari,  it  differs 
from  them  in  very  im- 
portant characters.  The 
mouth  parts  in  the 
mange  mites  are  formed 
to  cut  and  tear  the  flesh 
and  enable  the  mite  to 
burrow  into  the  skin,  or, 
at  least,  to  puncture  the 
skin  and  obtain  blood 
or  serum  for  its  suste- 
nance. In  the  air -sac 
mites  the  mouth  parts 
are  grown  together  and 
form  a  tube  through  which  liquids  may  be  sucked,  but 
which  is  not  adapted  for  tearing  or  puncturing  the 
flesh.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  the.se  mites  can 
only  produce  a  superficial  irritation  by  their  presence 
and  movements  upon  the  delicate  surface  of  the  mucous 
membranes,  or  possibly  by  depositing  a  virulent  saliva 
such  as  is  supposed  to  be  the  cause  of  a  part  of  the 


Fijr.  \2.— Cytodites  tinJus.  male 


DISEASES    OK    POUI.TKV.  63 

irritation  of  mange.  Nevertheless,  Holzendorff  states 
that  in  addition  to  the  infection  of  the  air -sacs  he  has 
found  in  the  lungs,  liver,  kidneys  and  other  viscera,  a 
great  number  of  yellow  miliary  tubercles  in  which  he 
also  recognized  this  parasite. 

When  theair-sacmitesexist  in  very  small  numbers,  no 
signs  of  irritation  or  ill  health  are  seen  in  the  affected 
birds.  When  they  become  very  numerous,  however, 
they  cause  considerable  irritation  of  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  air -sacs  and  they  are  crowded  into  the 
bronchi,  where  they  set  up  inflammation,  which  may 
take  the  form  of  bronchitis  or  broncho -pneumonia. 
Megnin  states  that  in  such  cases  there  may  be  obstruc- 
tion of  the  air -passages  causing  fits  of  coughing  and 
even  sudden  death  from  suffocation.  Gerlach  accused 
the  Cj'todites  of  causing  enteritis  (inflammation  of  the 
intestines),  and  Zundel  thought  they  caused  both  en- 
teritis and  peritonitis  (inflammation  of  the  serous 
membrane  lining  the  abdominal  cavity).  They  pro- 
bably cause  anaemia,  loss  of  flesh,  and  general  un- 
thriftiness,  even  if  no  form  of  acute  disease  develops. 

This  parasitic  affection  of  the  air-sacs  is,  of  course, 
a  contagious  disease.  The  mites  can  not  live  for  a  very 
long  time  outside  of  the  bird's  body;  they  are  brought 
upon  a  farm  with  affected  birds  and  as  opportunity 
offers  they  pass  from  bird  to  bird  until  the  greater  part 
or  the  whole  of  the  flock  becomes  contaminated.  No 
doubt  the  mites  penetrate  the  body  by  crawling  into 
the  nostrils  and  following  the  trachea  and  bronchial 
tubes  until  they  reach  the  air -sacs.  How  frequently, 
or  under  what  circumstances  they  leave  the  air -sacs 
and  seek  the  outside  air  is  unknown. 

Symptoms. —  In  many  cases  birds  affected  with  the 


64 


DISKASl-S    OF    rori.TKY. 


air-sac  mite  show  no  symptoms  of  disease,  and  the  ex- 
istence of  the  parasite  is  only  discovered  accidentally 
when  the  carcass  of  a  bird  which  has  died  from  some 
other  cause  is  being  examined.  In  other  cases  the 
fowls  are  listless, 
inactive,  with  pale 
comb,  and  loss  of 
flesh.  Occasional- 
ly one  dies  without 
anyapparent  cause. 
The  acute  cases 
may  come  on  with  - 
out  premonitory 
symptoms.  The 
affected  birds  are 
found  quite  ill, 
standing  by  them- 
selves, with  neck 
retracted,  wings 
drooped,  and  la- 
bored breathing. 
There  may  b  e  rattling  of  mucus  in  the  throat  as 
in  bronchitis,  or  paroxysms  of  coughing.  Death  may 
come  suddenly  from  obstruction  of  the  air -tubes  with 
plugs  of  mucus,  or  in  other  cases  the  illness  may  be 
prolonged  and  the  birds  die  of  exhaustion. 

The  mites  are  readily  discovered  on  the  walls  of  the 
air -sacs  after  the  death  of  the  bird.  They  are  about 
one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  length  and,  therefore,  easily 
seen  with  the  naked  eye.  They  are  often  so  numerous 
that  the  surfaces  of  the  air -sacs  appear  as  though  dust- 
ed with  a  whitish  or  yellowish  powder.  By  careful 
watching,  the  points  of  which  this  powder  is  composed 
are  seen  to  move  and  may  be  made  out  as  the  indivi- 


T'lg.   XZ.—Cytodites  NitJiix,  female. 


nisi-:AsKs  OK  pon.TRv.  65 

dual  acari.  The  mucous  surface  of  the  air -sacs  may 
also  be  covered  with  yellowish  points  of  exudate,  the 
result  of  the  irritation  caused  by  the  parasite,  while 
the  1)ronchi  are  congested  and  partly  filled  with  mucus. 
In  extreme  cases  there  may  also  be  pneumonia. 

Tricatment. —  Megnin  recommends  giving  sulphur 
mixed  with  the  food  and  states  that  the  small  quan- 
tity volatilized  and  eliminated  by  the  lungs  is  sufl&- 
cient  to  kill  the  parasites.  Others  advise  fumigation 
with  the  vapors  of  burning  tar  or  the  steam  from  boiling 
tar  water.  If  this  mite  is  discovered  in  the  flock,  efforts 
should  be  made  to  entirely  eradicate  it.  No  birds 
from  an  infected  flock  should  be  sold  for  breeding 
purposes.  Feeding  sulphur  and  fumigations  may  be 
tried,  but  the  flock  should  be  carefully  watched,  and 
if  the  parasite  persists  in  spite  of  this  treatment,  it 
would  te  better  to  kill  off  all  the  birds,  disinfect  thor- 
oughly and  start  with  new  birds  from  a  flock  known 
to  be  healthy.  One  of  the  best  plans  to  secure  a  flock 
free  from  parasites  of  all  kinds  is  to  purchase  eggs, 
hatch  them  in  an  incubator,  raise  the  chicks  in  a  clean 
brooder  and  put  them  on  ground  that  has  not  been 
used  for  fowls  for  several  years.  There  are  so  many 
parasites  to  which  birds  are  subject,  that  may  be 
avoided  in  this  way,  that  we  would  recommend  the 
plan  to  all  who  have  discovered  that  their  fowls  are 
infested  with  parasites,  or  who  for  some  mysterious 
reason  have  failed  to  make  poultry  thrive  and  yield 
satisfactory  returns  under  ordinary  conditions. 


66  DISHASIS    Ol-     POn.TRV 


OHAPTKR  III. 


Diseases  of  the  Organs  of  Digestion. 


GENERAIv  KEMAKKS  CONCERNING  THE  DIC  r^STIVE  ORGANS — 
OBSTRUCTION  OK  THE  BEAK — INFLAMMATION  OF  THE 
MUCOUS  MEMBRANE  OF  THE  MOUTK,  PIP,  CATARRHAL 
STOMATITIS — THRUSH,  APHTHA — DIPHTHERIA — PSOROS- 
PERMOSIS —  ASPERGILLOSIS  — CROUPOUS  ANGINA  — OB- 
STRUCTION OF  THE  PHARYNX — CATARRH  OR  INFLAM- 
MATION OF  THE  CROP — PARALYSIS  OF  THE  CROP,  IM 
PACTED  CROP,  OBSTRUCTED  CROP — ABNORMAL  APPETITE, 
ABERRATION  OF  THE  APPETITE — CATARRH  OF  THE  PRO 
VENTRICULUS,  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  STOMACH,  GAS- 
TRITIS. 


GENERAL      REMARKS      CONCERNING      THE     DIGESTIVE 
ORGANS. 

^#W'T  IS  necessary  to  know  something  of  the  form, 
II       structure,  situation    and  use  of    the  different 
II       oro:ans  which   constitute  the   digestive    appa- 
ratus in  order  to  fully  understand  the  diseases 
to  which  these  organs  are  subject.     Birds  do  not  masti  - 
cate  their  food  as  do  mammals,  but  this  is  swallowed 
in  the  condition  in  which  it  is  found,  and,  after  passing 
along  the  upper  part  of  the  oesophagus,  drops  into  the 
crop.     The  crop,  or  first  stomach,  Fig.  14-4,  is  a  dila- 
tation of  the  oesophagus ;  or  we  might  call  it  a  pouch 
attached  to  the  front  of  this  tube  before  it  reaches  the 
second   stomach   or  succentric    ventricle.     It   mav  be 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY, 


67 


Fig.  14.— Digestive  App.4^r.\tus  of  the  Chicke.n. 

In  this  Hg-ure  all  of  the  head  has  been  removed  except  the  lower  iaw 
which  has  been  turned  sidewise  to  show  the  ton;rue  and  the  openings  to 
the  trachea  and  <Esophaorus.  The  neck  with  the  e.xception  of  the  (jesoph- 
ag-us,  the  breast  bone,  the  heart  and  the  superficial  muscles  have  also 
been  removed.  •>••=« 

1,  tontrue;  2,  pharynx,  showing  opening-  to  larvnx;  3,  upper  portion  of 
OESophag-us;  4,  crop;  s,  lower  portion  of  oesophagus;  6,  succentric  ventricle- 
/,g-izzard;  8,  ong-in  of  the  duodenum:     9.  first  branch  of  duodenal  flexure' 


^fu^^l  i:  !;:^';"^,l-lSucr""'"'"  ^"^  binkry-ducts;  23.  pancVeas; 


68  DISEASES    or    POULTRY. 

compared  with  the  rumen  or  paunch  of  cattle  and 
sheep.  The  food  which  is  eaten  and  other  substances 
which  are  swallowed  drop  first  into  the  crop  where 
they  are  macerated  and  softened  in  the  liquids  secreted 
by  this  organ.  The  contents  of  this  crop  are  under 
normal  conditions  soon  forced  by  the  contractions  of 
its  nuiscular  walls  into  the  lower  part  of  the  oesophagus, 
which  carries  them  on  into  the  second  or  true  stomach, 
the  ]-)roventriculus  or  succentric  ventricle,  where  they 
are  mixed  with  the  gastric  juice  and  rapidly  passed 
onward  to  the  gizzard. 

In  the  grain -eating  birds,  the  gizzard  is  a  remark- 
ably firm,  thick  muscular  organ  which  takes  the  food 
that  has  been  softened  and  mixed  with  digestive 
liquids,  and  grinds  it  by  pressing  and  rubl)ing  it 
against  pebbles  that  the  bird  has  swallowed.  Kven 
the  hardest  grains  and  seeds  are  reduced  in  this  manner 
to  a  paste  upon  which  the  digestive  liquids  can  readily 
exert  their  dissolving  action.  This  paste  is  pressed 
onward  into  the  small  intestine  where  it  is  mixed  with 
the  secretions  of  the  liver,  pancreas,  and  intestines, 
which  complete  the  solution  of  the  nutritive  principles 
and  render  them  proper  for  assimilation. 

Under  natural  conditions  birds  are  compelled  to 
hunt  their  food,  they  find  and  eat  but  a  small  quantity 
at  a  time,  and  the  crop,  while  designed  by  nature  as  a 
reservoir  for  storing  food,  is  not  overloaded  by  receiv- 
ing a  day's  ration  in  a  few  minutes.  In  the  domesti- 
cated state,  these  conditions  are  more  or  less  changed, 
the  birds  are  fed  only  once  or  twice  a  day  and  from 
lack  of  gravel,  indigestion,  and  insuflficient  exercise, 
acquire  abnormal  appetites  and  eat  feathers,  straw,  dry 
leaves   and    other    indigestible   substances.     Ui.seases 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  69 

ami  obstructions  of  the  digestive  tract  occur  from  such 
causes,  and  while  these  are  more  or  less  preventable, 
even  the  most  careful  manager  may  occasionally  find 
some  of  his  birds  affected.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable 
to  study  the  form  and  functions  of  each  organ  so  that 
the  slightest  variation  from  the  normal  working  may 
be  appreciated,  and,  also,  that  the  proper  change  in 
management  may  suggest  itself  for  the  correction  of 
such  derangement. 

OBSTRUCTION    OF    THK    BEAK. 

It  is  seldom  that  the  upper  part  of  the  digestive 
tract  of  birds  becomes  obstructed.  Megnin  has,  how- 
ever, recorded  the  case  of  a  bird  in  which  a  sunflower 
seed  had  become  tightly  wedged  within  the  space 
formed  by  the  branches  of  the  lower  mandible.  This 
seed  compressed  and  completely  paralyzed  the  tongue, 
and  as  the  bird  was  unable  to  dislodge  it,  the  result 
was  death  from  inanition.  If  the  cause  of  the  trouble 
had  been  recognized  before  the  death  of  the  bird,  the 
offending  body  could  have  been  easily  removed  with  a 
toothpick  or  any  pointed  object  and  an  immediate  cure 
would  have  been  thus  affected.  When  a  bird  is  seen 
to  jerk  its  head  suddenly  as  if  to  rid  itself  of  some- 
thing which  adheres  to  the  beak  or  head,  particularly 
if  there  is  difficulty  of  picking  up  and  swallowing 
food,  a  careful  examination  should  be  made  for  some 
obstructing  body  such  as  a  seed  or  a  piece  of  bone. 
By  raising  the  tongue,  the  angle  of  the  lower  mandible 
may  be  readily  explored.  No  special  directions  are 
needed  for  the  removal  of  such  obstructions  further 
than  to  use  due  care  and  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible 
any  injury  to  the  sensitive  tissues. 


70  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

INFLAMMATION  OF    THE    MUCOUS    MEMBRANE    OF    THE 
MOUTH,  PIP,  CATARRHAL    STOMATITIS. 

A  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  mouth  is  seen  in 
fowls  and  may  be  either  an  independent  disease  or  a 
complication  of  certain  inflammatory  diseases  of  the 
respiratory  organs.  The  term  "pip"  is  commonl^^ 
used  with  birds  much  as  "hollow  horn"  and  "mur- 
rain "  are  applied  to  cattle  diseases;  that  is,  it  is  made 
to  cover  a  large  part  of  the  diseases  to  which  birds  are 
subject,  and  it  is  sometimes  believed  to  exist  bj'^  over- 
anxious poultry  keepers  when  a  careful  examination 
shows  that  the  birds  are  perfectly  healthy. 

Symptoms. —  Inflammation  of  the  mouth  is  a  rare 
rather  than  a  common  disease.  The  symptoms  con- 
sist of  the  drying  of  the  membrane  of  the  mouth  and 
particularly  of  that  covering  the  tongue.  A  hard 
opaque  deposit  accumulates  along  the  edges  and  upon 
the  under  surface  of  the  tongue,  and  may  firmly  attach 
this  organ  to  the  adjacent  parts.  The  dried  epidermis 
may  partly  separate  from  the  sensitive  tissues,  and 
form  a  hard  shell  which  remains  attached  to  the  free 
extremity  of  the  tongue,  causing  more  or  less  painful 
constriction  and  interfering  with  the  movements  of 
this  important  organ. 

Cause. —  This  disease  arises  from  any  form  of  local 
irritation  or  injury  which  is  sufficiently  serious  or  long 
continued  to  set  up  inflammatory  action.  In  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  it  is  probably  caused  by  micro  -organisms 
of  feeble  virulence  which  are  able  to  make  some  head- 
way when  the  digestive  organs  are  deranged  and  the 
circulation  of  the  parts  somewhat  disturbed.  In  most 
other  cases,  there  is  nothing  more  than  a  drying  or 
desiccation  of  the  mucous  membrane  caused  by  breath  - 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY.  71 

iiig-  through  the  incnith  on  account  of  ol)strvtction  of 
the  air  passages,  or  disease  of  the  lungs  affecting  the 
respiration. 

Trkatment. —  The  common  treatment  which  con- 
sists of  tearing  the  dried  epithelium  off  the  tongue,  be- 
fore it  has  entirely  separated  by  the  natural  process,  is 
cruel  and  injurious,  often  leading  to  the  death  of  the 
bird.  In  case  of  simple  drying  of  the  mouth,  it  is 
suf^cient  to  moisten  the  tongue  with  a  few  drops  of  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  glycerine  and  water.  In 
case  there  is  redness  of  the  membrane,  or  if  the  epithe- 
lium is  beginning  to  separate,  or  if  a  deposit  has 
formed,  add  twenty  grains  of  chlorate  of  potash  to 
each  ounce  of  this  mixture.  An  excellent  remedy  for 
such  cases  is  made  by  dissolving  fifteen  grains  of  boric 
acid  in  an  ounce  of  water.  Both  of  these  solutions 
are  harmless  and  may  be  freely  and  frequently  applied. 
When  the  epithelium  is  separating,  it  should  be  kept 
moistened  with  the  glycerine  mixture  and  its  detach- 
ment may  be  somewhat  facilitated  by  loosening  it  with 
a  pin  or  the  point  of  a  penknife,  but  great  care  should 
be  exercised,  the  sensitive  tissues  should  not  be  touched 
and  no  blood  should  be  drawn.  If  properly  treated 
the  disease  remains  localized  and  is  of  slight  import- 
ance. The  exaggerated  idea  prevalent  as  to  the  dan- 
gerous character  of  "pip,"  probabl}^  arises  from  its 
being  associated  with  serious  diseases  of  the  respira- 
tory organs  and  from  the  fatal  results  which  follow  the 
forcible  tearing  away  of  the  dried  epithelium,  leaving 
a  bleeding  and  ulcerating  surface.  Should  the  dr3nng 
and  irritation  of  the  membrane  be  the  result  of  breath- 
ing through  the  mouth  on  account  of  disease  of  the 
air  passages  or  lungs,  the  latter  must,  of  course,  be 
treated  to  effect  a  permanent  cure. 


72  1)Isi:asi:s  oi*  I'on.TKv. 

THKUSII,   APHTII.V:. 

In  lumian  nifdicine  tlit.'  Iltius  thrush  and  aphthce  are 
applied  to  an  affection  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth,  seen  particularly'  in  children,  and  which  is 
characterized  1))'the  i^roduction  of  a  white  cheesy  sul)- 
stance,  com]iosed  of  the  filaments  and  spores  of  a 
ve.s^etable  i)arasite,  called  the  Oidiiou  albicans  (or  Sac- 
cliaroviyccs  albicans)  and  of  the  cells  of  the  epithelium 
which  have  undergone  extensive  proliferation.  Veteri- 
narians have  applied  the  name  to  several  distinct  dis- 
eases of  the  mouth,  seen  in  various  mammals  and  birds, 
which  are  characterized  by  a  white  or  yellowish  de- 
posit on  various  parts  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining 
that  cavity.  It  is  supposed  that  the  term  thrush  has 
been  applied  to  diphtheria  and  chicken  pox  in  birds  and 
possibly  to  other  diseases.  True  thrush,  although  a 
rare  disease,  has  been  noted  in  at  least  two  instances 
where  a  reliable  diagnosis  appears  to  have  been  made. 

One  of  the  two  cases  recorded  in  birds  was  described 
by  Eberth  as  follows  :  At  the  autopsy  of  a  verj^  emaci  - 
ated  fowl,  which  had  died  after  violent  convulsions, 
there  was  found  on  the  mucous  meml)rane  of  the  oesoph- 
agus, from  the  middle  of  that  tube  to  the  crop,  several 
white  but  not  extensive  deposits  firmly  adhering  to  the 
surface.  The  internal  surface  of  the  crop  was  covered 
by  a  white  layer,  similar  to  the  deposit  of  thrush. 
Below  the  crop,  the  oesophagus  also  had  some  more 
patches  of  a  brownish -3'ellow  color.  The  microscopic 
examination  of  this  layer  proved  it  to  be  composed  of 
the  spores  and  filaments  of  the  Saccharoniyces  albicans. 
The  second  case,  recorded  by  Martin,  was  observed  in 
a  3'oung  turkey.  At  the  autopsy,  there  was  found  at 
the   ]iosterior   ])art  of  the  oesophagus  and  reaching  as 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 


73 


Fig.  15.— Microscopic  elements  of  thrush;  a.  a,  and  r,  c,  epithelial  cells; 
/".  b.  isolated  spores  of  the  Sacc/tarn/nvris  albicans;  </,  i/,  filaments  of  the 
mycelium;  t\g,  I,  k,  terminal  portionsof  the  mycelium;  //,  spores;  /,  ovoid 
terminal  cell.     Mag'nitied  3oO  diameters. 

far  as  the  proventriculus,  a  layer  of  thrush  having  the 
same  appearances  to  the  naked  eye  and  under  the 
microscope  as  were  described  b}'  Eberth. 

Although,  in  the  two  recorded  cases,  the  disease 
existed  in  the  lower  part  of  the  oesophagus,  it  is  very 
proi)abIe  that  it  also  occurs  in  the  mouth  of  birds,  a 
location  favorable  for  its  development  with  most  species 
of  animals.  The  disease  does  not  appear  to  be  very 
common,  although  it  might  be  quite  frequent  and  still 
not  be  recognized,  as  but  comi^aratively  few  investi- 
gators have  given  systematic  attention  to  poultry  dis- 
eases. Thrush  can  be  distinguished  from  other  dis- 
eases causing  a  similar  deposit  only  bj'  a  microscopic 
examination.     The  mj-celium  and  spores  of  the  fungus 


74  DISKASKS    OF    POUI.TRV. 

are  found   in   abundance   between  the  epithelium  and 
the  mucous  surface. 

There  are  no  characteristic  symptoms  in  addition  to 
the  whitish  patches  upon  the  affected  membrane.  The 
patients  are  depressed,  the  mouth  exhales  an  acid  odor, 
the  head  may  be  swollen,  the  appetite  is  preserved,  but 
there  is  rapid  loss  of  weight  and  strength.  Death  is 
preceded  by  convulsions. 

The  canker  of  pigeons  is  l)elieved  ])y  some  investi- 
gators to  be  caused  by  this  fungus. 

Treatment. —  The  system  of  the  bird  should  be 
strengthened  l)y  good  food  and  tonics.  The  part 
affected  should  be  treated  with  antiseptics  and  particu- 
larly with  a  ten  per  cent  solution  of  borate  of  soda  or 
with  boric  acid  solution  fifteen  grains  to  the  ounce 
of  water.  The.se  solutions  should  be  applied  quite 
frequently  in  case  the  affected  part  is  in  the  mouth, 
where  it  can  be  reached.  When  the  disease  is  localized 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  oesophagus  it  can  not  be  diag- 
nosed during  the  life  of  the  bird  and  hence  can  not  be 
treated. 

DIPHTHERIA. 

Whitish,  graj'ish,  or  yellowish  patches  of  false  mem- 
brane are  frequently  seen  upon  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  mouth  with  various  species  of  birds.  This  is 
generally  due  to  dii)htheria,  a  serious,  contagious  dis- 
ease described  in  the  chapter  on  generalized  infectious 
diseases,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

PSOROSPERMOSLS. 

Diphtheritic  processes,  pustules  and  ulcers  of  the 
mouth  in  poultry  and  pigeons  have  l)een  attributed  by 
numerous  authors  to  psorosperms,  or  parasitic  proto- 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  7j 

zoa.  While  such  organisms  have  undoubtedly  been 
discovered  in  connection  with  these  lesions  it  is  some- 
what doubtful  if  their  presence  is  more  than  accidental. 
The  sore  head,  chicken  pox,  or  pigeon  pox,  which  in- 
vades the  mouth,  in  certain  cases,  was  long  considered 
to  be  a  form  of  psorospermosis.  The  most  recent  in- 
vestigations, however,  attribute  this  disease  to  a  fungus 
of  the  group  of  blastomycetes.  It  is,  also,  stated  that 
the  tongues  of  poultry  and  pigeons  may  be  invaded  by 
psorosperms.  These  observations  must  be  confirmed 
by  use  of  the  most  recent  methods  of  research  before 
thej^  can  be  accepted  and  before  the  disease,  if  any, 
which  they  cause  can  be  described.  The  article  on 
Chicken  Pox  or  Sore  Head  in  the  chapter  on  Diseases 
of  the  Skin  may  be  consulted  in  this  connection. 

ASPERGILLOSIS. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Dieulafoy,  Chantemesse  and 
Widal  that  young  pigeons  are  frequently  affected  with 
a  disease  which  appears  in  the  form  of  a  white  nodule 
in  the  floor  of  the  mouth.  This  is  apparently  caseous 
and  in  size  varies  from  that  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  small 
nut.  It  may  be  accompanied  by  miliary  tubercles  in 
the  lungs  which  are  either  isolated  or  agglomerated 
in  caseous  masses.  Similar  tumors  may  be  found  in 
the  oesophagus,  intestine,  liver  and  kidneys.  These 
nodules  which  closely  resemble  those  of  tuberculosis 
do  not  contain  the  bacilli  of  tulDerculosis  but  there  is 
found  in  them  the  fungus  known  as  the  .Ispoxilhis 
fiimigatiis.  This  fungus  also,  affects  the  mouth  and 
air  passages  of  poultrj-,  and  has  been  described  in  the 
chapter  on  Disease  of  the  Organs  of  Respiration. 

According  to  Dieulafoj^  Chantemesse  and  Widal  the 
"crammers   of  pigeons"    are   affected   with  a  chronic 


76  DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY. 

disease  of  the  lungs  probably  caused  by  this  fungus  and 
due  to  contagion.  In  certain  establishments  in  Paris, 
these  men  feed  daily  several  thousands  of  pigeons, 
filling  their  mouths  with  a  mixture  of  water  and  grains, 
then  applying  their  own  lips  to  the  open  bill  of  the 
birds  in  order  to  blow  down  a  portion  of  this  mixture. 
It  is  probable  that  they  in  this  way  become  infected 
with  the  s]iores  of  the  aspergillus  from  diseased  pig- 
eons. Culture  and  inoculation  experiments  made  with 
the  expectoration  of  the  affected  "  crammers  "  confirm 
this  ex])lanation. 

Trk.vtmkxt. —  The  appearance  of  this  disease 
among  poultry  or  pigeons  should  be  at  once  accepted 
as  a  signal  for  thoroughly  cleaning  and  disinfecting 
the  houses  and  appurtenances  liable  to  be  infected. 
The  diseased  birds  should  also  be  isolated  and  treated 
or  killed.  Medical  treatment  to  the  nodules  in  the 
mouth  has  not  been  reported  upon  sufficiently  to  allow 
of  an  opinion  behig  formed  as  to  its  efficacy.  The 
remedies  to  be  tried  are  boric  acid  solution  fifteen 
grains  to  one  ounce  of  water ;  sulphate  of  copper  ten 
to  fifteen  grains  to  the  ounce;  carbolic  acid  in  two  per 
cent  solution;  flowers  of  sulphur  to  be  applied  in 
powder. 

CROUPOUS    ANGINA. 

A  form  of  croupous  angina  has  been  described  by 
Rivolta  and  Delprato  as  affecting  pullets  and  young 
pigeons,  and  which  they  believe  to  be  caused  by  flagel- 
late infusoria.  They  have  named  this  organism  the 
Monoccrcomonas  gallince.  This  germ  is  a  round  or  dis  - 
coid  body  of  a  pale  tint,  and  from  14  to  25  micromilli- 
meters  (1-2000  to  1-1000  of  an  inch)  in  length  by 
5  to  7  micromillimeters  (1-5000  to  1-3500  of  an  inch) 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  77 

in  breadth.  It  has  flagella  at  its  extremities  which 
enable  it  to  move  in  any  direction. 

The  symptoms  are  whitish  jioints,  si^ots  or  elevations 
upon  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  pharynx,  oesoph- 
ag:us,  crop,  and  more  rarel}"  upon  the  palate,  base  of 
the  tongue  and  lingual  canal.  A  microscopic  exami- 
nation of  the  affected  spot  shows  it  to  be  made  up  of 
epithelial  cells,  lencocj^tes,  red  blood  globules,  and 
granular  matter,  among  which  thousands  of  the  in- 
fusoria are  moving.  Beneath  the  spot  or  patch,  the 
mucous  membrane  is  congested  or  inflamed. 

This  disease  may  cause  death  from  loss  of  appetite 
and  weakness.  It  is  distinguished  from  diphtheria 
by  the  fact  that  the  exudate  is  only  slightly  adherent 
to  the  mucous  membrane  and  is  easily  detached  from 
it.  Some  authors  doubt  if  the  infusoria  cause  the  dis- 
ease and  are  inclined  to  consider  it  a  form  of  diph- 
theria. The  treatment  should  be  the  same  as  recom- 
mended for  diphtheria. 

ORSTKUCTION    OF    THE    PHARYNX. 

Occasionally  a  bird  attempts  to  swallow  a  particle 
of  food,  or  a  i)iece  of  green  bone,  so  large  or  irregular 
in  conformation  that  it  becomes  lodged  in  the  pharynx. 
The  condition  maj'  be  recognized  bj^  the  efforts  of  the 
bird  to  swallow  the  object  or  to  rid  itself  of  it;  and 
by  passing  the  fingers  over  the  throat  a  hard  swelling 
can  be  made  out.  Prompt  relief  should  be  afforded  in 
such  cases  or  death  maj-  result  from  suffocation.  The 
treatment  consists  in  the  removal  of  the  obstructing 
substance.  This  can  generally  be  accomplished  by 
carefully  pressing  on  the  sides  of  the  throat  in  such  a 
ma'.mer  as  to  force  the  bod\'  into  the  month.  If  it  is 
difficult  to  move  it  in  this  way,  a  teasjjoonful   of  olive 


78  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

oil  ]ioured  into  the  back  i)art  of  the  mouth  may  assist 
in  dislodging  it.  A  small  I'Tair  of  forceps  or  any  small 
blunt -pointed  instrument  may  in  certain  cases  be  ser- 
viceable. Careful  manipulation  with  the  fingers  may 
usuall}'  be  relied  ujion,  however,  to  accomplish  the  re- 
moval of  the  obstruction. 

C.\TARKH    OR    INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    CROP. 

The  mucous  membrane  lining  the  interior  of  the 
crop  may  l)e  the  seat  of  more  or  less  irritation  or  even 
of  inflammation.  As  a  result  of  this  process  the  func- 
tions of  the  organ  are  disturbed  or  arrested  and  serious 
conditions  develop.  The  disease  does  not  appear  to 
be  verj'  common  except  as  a  complication  of  other 
disorders. 

Causation. —  Catarrh  of  the  crop  may  be  caused  by 
irregular  feeding  and  I)}'  too  much  food  being  taken  at 
one  time.  When  the  crop  is  over -distended  the  mus- 
cular coat  is  partiall}'  paralj'zed,  the  secretion  of  the 
glands  is  interfered  with,  there  is  congestion  of  the 
internal  coat,  and  fermentation  or  decomposition  of 
the  contents.  If  fowls  eat  feathers  or  other  indigestible 
substances,  these  may  irritate  the  mucous  coat  of  the 
crop  and  produce  catarrh.  Partialh'  decomposed  meat, 
or  putrid  food  of  an}'  kind,  is  also  irritating  and  liable 
to  produce  the  same  result.  The  same  disease  occurs 
when  birds  eat  substances  containing  phosphorus  or 
arsenic,  either  1)}' gaining  access  to  rat  poison,  or  when 
they  are  intentionall}'  poisoned.  Catarrh  maj',  also, 
result  from  the  i)resence  of  animal  ])arasites  (worms) 
such  as  the  Displiaragus  nasutus  and  unciiiatiis  and 
the  TricJiosoma  contort um.  It  is  also  a  complication 
of  thrush,  diphtheria  and  cholera.  With  ])igeons  which 
have  lost  their  voung,  it  results  from  engorgement  of 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  79 

the  follicles  that  secrete  the  milky  liiiuid  with  which 
the  young  pigeons  are  fed. 

Symptoms. —  The  most  prominent  symptom  is  dis- 
tention of  the  crop,  and  on  examination  the  swelling 
is  found  to  be  soft  and  due  to  accumulated  liquid  or 
gas,  mixed  with  more  or  less  food.  The  birds  are  dull, 
indisposed  to  move,  and  there  is  belching  of  gas,  loss 
of  appetite  and  weakness.  Sometimes  there  is  nausea 
and  the  affected  bird  attempts  to  vomit.  Pressure  upon 
the  crop  causes  the  expulsion  through  the  mouth  of 
liquid  and  gas  having  an  offensive  odor  due  to  fer- 
mentation. 

Treatment. —  A  clean,  dry  pen  should  be  provided 
for  the  affected  bird  or  birds  where  proper  attention 
can  be  given  to  the  treatment  and  where  the  food  can 
be  regulated.  The  first  step  in  treatment  is  to  empty 
the  crop  of  its  irritating  and  decomposing  contents  by 
careful  pressure  and  manipulation  while  the  bird  is 
held  with  its  head  downward.  When  the  crop  appears 
to  be  entirely  freed  of  its  contents,  give  two  grains  of 
subnitrate  of  bismuth  and  one -half  grain  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  in  a  teaspoonful  of  water.  This  will 
relieve  the  irritation  and  correct  the  acidity.  Some 
authors  recommend  salicylic  acid  to  be  given  imme- 
diately after  the  crop  is  emptied.  It  may  be  con- 
veniently administered  by  dissolving  one  grain  in  an 
ounce  of  water  and  giving  two  to  three  teaspoonfuls 
as  a  dose.  The  bird  should  be  kept  without  food  for 
eighteen  or  twenty  hours,  and  then  fed  sparingly  upon 
soft,  easily  digested  material.  If  one -half  grain  of 
quinine  is  given  morning  and  night  for  two  or  three 
days  the  recovery  is  hastened.  If  treatment  is  com- 
menced in  time  most  of  the  birds  will  recover. 


80  DISKA.SI-S  OF  POri.TRY. 


PARALYSIS  OF  Tin-;  CKOl',  IMPACTED  CROP,  OB- 
STRUCTKD  CROP. 

The  crop  may  be  overloaded  with  dry  grain,  and  its 
thin  muscular  walls  distended,  exhausted  and  paral- 
yzed so  that  the  organ  can  not  be  emptied ;  or,  the 
opening  into  the  lower  portion  of  the  oesophagus  may 
be  clogged  with  dry  leaves,  feathers,  straw,  and  other 
indigestible  substances  swallowed  by  the  bird;  or, 
finally,  the  walls  of  the  crop  ma}' be  paralyzed  in.  some 
diseases,  as,  for  instance,  in  cholera  and  diphtheria, 
and,  as  the  bird  continues  to  eat,  this  receptacle  be- 
comes over -distended  and  packed  solidly  with  food. 
In  these  different  cases  the  sj^mptoms  are  almost  iden  - 
tical  and  the  treatment  must  be  conducted  on  the  same 
princii)les.  It  is  convenient,  therefore,  to  group  these 
different  conditions  together  and  consider  them  for 
practical  purposes  as  constituting  one  disease. 

Causation. —  Improper  feeding  is  to  a  great  extent 
responsible  for  impaction  of  the  crop.  Birds  that  are 
half  starved  or  that  have  had  no  grain  for  a  long  time 
are  liable  to  eat  too  much  if  they  at  once  have  access 
to  a  large  quantity.  Again,  birds  v.-hich  have  con- 
tracted catarrh  of  the  crop  from  improper  treatment 
frequently  have  depraved  appetites  and  may  fill  the 
crop  to  repletion  with  food  and  all  sorts  of  indigestible 
substances.  It  appears,  therefore,  that,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  those  cases  of  paralysis  due  to  the  poison 
developed  in  the  course  of  the  contagious  diseases,  and 
of  those  cases  of  obstruction  resulting  from  the  acci- 
dental swallowing  of  pins,  nails,  large  pieces  of  dry 
bones,  pieces  of  thread  or  cord  and  similar  substances, 
this  disease  is  caused  by  irregular  or  improper  diet  and 
a  failure  to  maintain  those  hygienic  conditions  neces- 


DISK ASKS    OF    POULTRV.  81 

sary  to  j^ood  liL-ilth.     An  insu.Ticient  supi)ly  of  drink 
ing  water  is,  also,  regarded  as  a  cause. 

SvMPTo:\iS. —  The  affected  bird  has  difficulty  in  swal  - 
lowing  or  entirely  loses  its  a}:)iietite.  The  crop  is 
greatl}'  distended,  the  swelling  sometimes  1)eing  of 
remarkable  size.  It  is  hard  and  more  or  less  firm  and 
unj'ielding  on  i)ressure.  Sometimes  a  fermenting  or 
decomi)osing  licjuid  escapes  from  the  mouth  and  nos- 
trils. The  bird  is  slow  in  its  movements,  dull,  stupid, 
and  sleep3'.  The  comb  is  pale,  the  beak  is  kept  oj^en 
on  account  of  the  pressure  on  the  trachea,  and  the 
feathers  a]i])ear  rough.  In  some  instances  sharp - 
])ointe(l  nails  or  other  ])ointed  ol^jects  are  found  to 
have  i)enetrated  the  croi)  and  skin  and  remain  pro- 
jecting from  the  puncture. 

^  The  ])ressure  of  the  distended  crop  upon  the  wind- 
pipe and  blood-vessels  may  cause  asphyxia,  the  crop 
may  become  affected  with  gangrene,  or  it  may  even  be 
ruptured.  As  much  as  three -fourths  of  a  ]iound  of 
moist  or  even  s])routed  grain  has  been  removed  from 
the  crop  in  these  severe  cases. 

Tkk.vtment. —  The  treatment  of  affected  birds  should 
be  prom]:)t  and  energetic  to  avoid  the  fatal  complica- 
tions which  have  been  mentioned.  Pour  a  small  (juan- 
tity  of  sweet  oil  into  the  mouth  and  cause  the  l)ird  to 
swallov:  it.  Then  manipulate  that  portion  of  the  crop 
nearest  the  throat  by  careful  ])ressure  and  squeezing 
between  the  thumb  and  finger  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
break  u])  the  contents  of  the  croj)  and  force  it  towards 
the  mouth  in  small  i^ortions.  Suspend  the  bird  head 
downwards  from  time  to  time  and  ])ress  the  loosened 
particles  of  food  towards  the  head  so  that  they  will 
escape  from  the  mouth.  With  care  and  ])atience  the 
croi)  may  be  entirely  emptied  in  this  way,  if  oil  is  ad  - 


82  disp:asks  ok  potltrv. 

ministered  as  often  as  is  recjuired  to  soften  the  contents. 
After  this  is  acconi]ilished  j^ive  two  grains  of  bakin.o^ 
soda  in  water,  keej)   without   food  for  a  da}-,  and  then 
feed  sjiarint;!}-  on  soft   diet   until  recovery  is  coni])lete. 
In  case  thecro]i  contains  hard-])ointed  objects  which 
can  not  safely  be  niani])ulated  in  the  manner  just  de- 
scribed, or  if  such  attem])ts  at  removing  the  impacted 
matter  are  for  any  reason  unsuccessful,  the  cro])  must 
be  cut   into   with   a   knife   and   the  contents   removed 
through   the  artificial   opening.      In   order  to  ]:)erform 
this  o])eration  properly,  the  feathers  should  be  clijiped 
off  with   a   ]iair  of  scissors  over  the  most  prominent 
])art  of  the  crop  so  that  the}''  will  not  obstruct  the  cut- 
ting or  get  in  the  o])erator's  way  when  he  is  removing 
the  contents  of  the  crop.     Now  take  a  sharp,   clean 
knife  and  make  an  incision   through  the  skin  and  the 
wall  of  the  cro]:)  until  the  food  in  this  organ  is  reached. 
This  opening  should    not  be  much    over   an   inch  in 
length,  and  should   he   rather  high  on  the  crop  so  that 
the   food   will   not  have  the  same  tendency  to  press  it 
open  when   healing  as  it  would  at  the  most  dependant 
part.     The  contents  of  the  crop   should   be  carefully 
removed  with  the  finger,  or  with  the  handle  of  a  spoon 
or  some  other  convenient    object.     The  wound   may 
now   be  washed  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  five 
drops  to  one  ounce  of  water,  and  closed  with  stitches. 
White  silk  is  the  best  material  to  use  for  this  purpose. 
Some  stitch   the  walls  of  the  cro])  first,  allowing  the 
ends  of  the   silk  to  hang  outside,  so  that  after  five  or 
six  days  the  thread  maj'  be  cut  and  the  stitches  jnilled 
out.     The  skhi   is   drawn  together  in   the   same  wa}'. 
Other  o])erators  prefer  to  stitch  through  the  skin  and 
the  walls  of  the  crop  at  the   same  time,  drawing  them 
carefully  and  neatly  together.      In   iive  or  six  daj-s  if 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  83 

the  union  of  the  ])arts  has  taken  ])lace,  cut  the  stitches 
and  carefull}'  draw  them  out  so  that  they  will  not  in- 
terfere with  ])erfect  healin.2;.  After  the  ojieration  has 
been  ];)erformed,  give  no  food  and  onl}-  a  small  quan- 
tity of  water,  to  which  a  grain  or  two  of  salic3'lic  acid 
has  lieen  added,  during  the  first  twenty -four  hours. 
Then  feed  with  milk  for  two  or  three  days,  gradually 
changing  to  mush  or  more  solid  food,  and  finalh'  re- 
turn to  the  ordinar}-  diet  when  the  wound  heals. 

With  fowls,  this  operation  is  not  serious,  if  per- 
formed in  time,  the  wound  readily  heals  and  the  birds 
are  soon  well.  With  pigeons,  it  is  usually  fatal  on 
account  of  the  sensitive  and  vascular  condition  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  affected  ])art. 

ABNORMAL    APPETITE,  ABERRATION    OF    THE 
APPETITE. 

Depraved  and  abnormal  appetite  is  generall}^ the  re- 
sult of  some  disease  of  the  digestive  organs,  although, 
frequentl5^  it  may  be  an  acquired  habit.  It  often 
accom]:)anies  and  is  a  symptom  of  catarrh  of  the  crop, 
parasites  of  the  oesophagus  and  crop,  catarrh  of  the 
proventriculus,  and  partial  obstruction  of  the  gizzard 
from  lack  of  grit.  It  is  easily  understood  why  these 
troubles  should  affect  the  appetite.  The  sensations  of 
appetite  and  hunger  are  produced  apparently  by  phj-sio  - 
logical  variations  of  the  circulation  in  the  stomach, 
acting  upon  the  nerves  of  this  organ.  Variations  of 
the  circulation  occur  from  the  diseases  mentioned  to  a 
much  greater  degree  than  under  jiln-siological  con- 
ditions, and,  hence,  the  sensations  produced  are  more 
acute  and  more  urgent.  They  lead  the  birds  to  swallow 
the  most  convenient  substances  without  much  regard 
to  their   nutritive    cjualities  or  whether    thej'    can    be 


84  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

digested.  Amoa.a:  ths  numerous  substances  which  are 
swallowed  under  such  conditions,  are  dry  grass,  leaves, 
particles  of  dry  bone,  pieces  of  cloth,  nails,  and  feathers. 
Birds  with  such  depraved  appetites  often  pull  the 
feathers  out  of  other  members  of  the  flock,  in  order  to 
satisfy  their  abnormal  craving.  In  this  way  they  ac- 
quire the  habit  of  feather  eating.  Very  often  the 
feather -eating  habit  is  acquired  by  imilalion,  and  thus 
it  may  be  introduced  into  a  flock  by  a  new  bird  which 
had  contracted  it  elsewhere;  or,  it  is  spread  through 
the  flock  from  a  bird  which  was  led  to  it  by  indigestion, 
or  other  disease  of  the  stomach.  Lack  of  exercise 
may  affect  the  digestion  sufficiently  to  lead  to  feather 
eating. 

Treatment. —  Give  the  birds  a  good  run  in  a  grass - 
covered  yard.  Feed  easilj'  digested  and  cooling  food 
including  green  vegetables.  Onions  are  said  to  be 
particularly  efficacious.  If  the  yard  is  small,  prepare 
a  scratching  shed,  covering  the  floor  deeply  with  straw, 
and  scatter  grain  in  the  straw  for  the  morning  meal  so 
that  the  fowls  will  be  compelled  to  scratch  and  work 
to  find  it.  Add  bicarbonate  of  soda  to  the  drinking 
water  in  the  proportion  of  about  twenty  grains  to  the 
quart  and  put  a  small  quantity  of  salt  in  the  food. 
Salting  of  food  should,  however,  be  light  as  large 
quantities  of  salt  are  injurious  and  may  be  fatal  to 
poultry. 

CATARRH    OP-    THE    PROVENTRICULUS,   INFLAMMATION 
OF    THE    STOMACH,  GASTRITIS. 

The  true  stomach  or  proventriculus  of  the  fowl  is  a 
comi)aratively  small  organ.  It  has  the  ai)])earance  of 
a  dilatation  of  the  oesophagus  below  the  croj)  and  just 
in  front  of  the  gi/.zard.     The  capacity  of  the  proventri- 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 


85 


cuius  is  slight,  aud  with  those  birds  which  live  upon 
vegetable  substances  the  food  is  fed  to  it  gradually 
and  almost  constantly  from  the  crop.  Birds  which  eat 
insec'c!^.  fruits,  or  flesh  exclusively  have  either  no  crop 
or  only  a  simple  dilatation  of  the  ctsophagus,  as  such 

food  is  easily  digested. 

Eagle. 


Gannet. 


In  the  walls  of  the  pro- 
ventriculus  are  the  gas- 
tric glands  which  secrete 
the  gastric  juice  required 
for  the  digestion  of  the 
albuminoid  constitu- 
ents of  the  food.  The 
different  forms  assumed 
bj'  the  gastric  glands 
in  various  species  of 
birds  are  illustrated  in 
Fig.  16.  The  simplicity 
or  complication  of  these 
glands  indicates  to  a 
certain  extent  the  kind 
of  food  which  is  natu- 
ral to  the  s]:)ecies.  The 
gastric  juice  may  digest 
flesh,  fish,  and  ground 
feed  while  .still  in  the 
proventriculus,  but  it 
can  not  act  upon  grains 
and  seeds  until  these 
have  been  crushed  in 
the  gizzard.  Catarrh  or  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  stomach  is  a  not  uncommon  disease, 
and  one  which   seriously  interferes  with   the  vigor  and 


Turkey. 


Ostrich. 


Fig.  16.— Gastric  plands  of  birds. 


86  DISEASES    OK    POULTRY. 

productiveness  of  the  flock  and  may  cause  considerable 
losses  as  it  often  ends  fatally. 

Caus.\tion. —  Gastritis  may  be  caused  by  anything 
which  interferes  with  the  proper  digestion  of  the  food. 
A  lack  of  grit  may  prevent  the  gizzard  from  tritu- 
rating the  food  with  sufficient  rapidity,  the  passage 
is,  therefore,  blocked,  the  aliments  are  held  back  in  the 
stomach,  the  latter  is  unduly  distended,  and  the  contents, 
being  retained  too  long,  cause  irritation.  The  ingestion 
of  too  large  a  quantity  of  food  may  act  in  the  same 
way.  It  is  said  that  a  long -continued  ration  of  stimu- 
lating food,  too  much  condiments  or  condition  powder, 
and  lack  of  exercise  are  all  exciting  causes ;  as  are, 
also,  impure  drinking  water,  mouldy  food,  and  putre- 
fying flesh.  In  certain  cases  this  disease  is  produced 
by  irritating  poisons,  such  as  rat  poison,  phosphorus 
from  matches,  and  similar  substances  obtained  acci- 
dentally or  given  maliciously.  Occasionally  it  is 
found  to  be  due  to  pins,  nails,  pieces  of  bone  or  other 
sharp  objects  which  have  become  lodged  and  may  have 
partly  or  completely  penetrated  the  walls  of  the  organ. 
It  may  be  observed  as  a  complication  of  various  con- 
tagious diseases,  such  as  fowl  cholera  and  diphtheria. 

Symptoms. —  With  inflammation  of  the  stomach, 
there  is  loss  of  appetite  and  marked  thirst.  The  birds 
are  dull  and  have  some  fever,  with  accelerated  breath- 
ing. The  plumage  is  erect,  the  wings  drooping,  and 
there  is  usually  constijiation.  In  serious  cases  there  is 
great  prostration  and  indisposition  to  move,  loss  of 
fiesh  is  ra])id,  and  the  strength  is  soon  exhausted. 

Treatment. —  If  the  disease  is  identified  in  its 
early  stages,  seek  for  its  cause,  and  endeavor  to  over- 
come it  by  removing  the  cause.  Change  the  ration 
and  give  more   easily   digested   food,  with  some  meat. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  87 

Feed  regularly,  often,  and  a  small  quantity  at  a  time. 
Give  some  cooked  food,  with  barley  water  or  milk  for 
drink,  or  put  twenty  grains  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  to 
a  quart  of  drinking  water.  In  severe  cases,  give  two 
grains  sub  nitrate  of  bismuth  three  times  a  day  in 
a  teaspoonful  of  water.  Counteract  constipation  with 
Epsom  salts  (twenty  grains)  or  castor  oil  (one  tea- 
spoonful)  once  a  day  as  long  as  may  be  necessary. 
Let  the  fowls  run  on  young  grass  with  plenty  of  range. 
In  case  the  disease  is  due  to  poisoning  or  to  sharp 
objects  imbedded  in  the  stomach,  it  generally  ends 
fatally  before  its  nature  is  discovered. 


iiS  I)I.si:asi:s  of  roui/ruv 


CHAPTER  IV. 


DisKASKS  OF  THE  Organs  ok  Digestion  {ro/f/nmcd) . 


CASTKO-INTESTINAL  CATAKKH,  SIMPLE  DIARRHEA,  GASTRO- 
ENTERITIS, ENTERITIS — CONSTIPATION,  INTESTINAL 
OBSTRUCTION — TOXIC  GASTRO  ENTERITIS— BACTERIAL 

ENTERITIS — ASTHENIA,  GOING  LIGHT — PSOROSPERMIC- 
ENTERITIS — INI-ECTIOIS  ENTERO-HEPATITIS  OF  TUR- 
KEYS, BLACK  HEAD-PARASITIC  WORMS  WHICH  INFEST 
THE  DIGESTIVE  APPARATUS — THE  NODULAR  T^ENIASIS 
OF  FOWLS. 

GASTRO-INTESTINAL  CATARRH,  SIMPLE  DIARRHEA, 
G  ASTRO -ENTERITIS,    ENTERITIS. 

/^^^  H  E  conditions  known  as  gastro-intestinal  catarrh 
/  \  and  gastro-enteritis  may  be  reijarded  as  different 
^^i^  degrees  o  f  the  sa  uie  process ,  or  as  the  same  disease 
but  much  more  intense  in  one  case  than  the  other. 
The  stomach  and  intestine  are  both  affected.  With  en- 
teritis the  inflamtnator}'  process  isconfined  to  the  intes- 
tine. During  the  life  of  the  bird  it  is  somewhat  diffi- 
cult to  make  a  distinction  between  these  three  condi- 
tions and  it  is,  therefore,  more  convenient  from  a 
practical  point  of  view  to  group  them  together.  By 
postmortem  examination,  it  is  seen  that  the  catarrhal 
process  produces  comparatively  slight  changes  in  the 
walls  of  digestive  organs  and  that  these  are  super- 
ficial and  near  the  epithelial  surface,  while  in  ga.stritis 
and  enteritis  there  is  more  redness  and  thickening,  and 
the  inflammation  extends  not  only  to  the  deeper  layers 
of  the  mucous  membrane  but  to  the  other  coats  of  the 
stomach  and  intestine. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  89 

Causation. —  The  cause  of  simple  inflammation  of 
the  digestive  tract  is  to  be  sought  either  in  the  (juantity 
of  the  food,  the  quality  of  the  food  or  of  the  drinking 
water,  or  the  atmospheric  conditions  to  which  the 
bird  has  been  exposed.  This  form  of  inflammation 
should  not  be  confounded  with  that  which  is  caused 
by  irritating  poisons,  or  bj'  the  various  kinds  of  para- 
sites which  are  liable  to  develoj)  in   the  digestive  tube. 

Inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  maj' re- 
sult from  overloading  the  stomach;  from  too  stimulat- 
ing rations  or  from  too  much  pepper,  condiments  or 
condition  powers;  from  eating  tainted,  moldy  or 
putrefying  food ;  from  drinking  water  which  has 
been  contaminated  with  filth  and  which  has  stood 
in  a  warm  place  or  in  the  sunshine  until  it  has 
become  putrid ;  from  exposure  to  draughts,  cold 
rains  or  damp  coops,  particularly  during  the  molt- 
ing season.  It  most  frequently  affects  young  birds 
and  the  improved  breeds. 

Symptoms. —  There  is  loss  of  appetite,  roughness  of 
the  plumage,  depression  and  indisposition  to  move. 
The  crop  is  generally  distended,  its  walls  are  partially 
paralyzed  and  it  empties  slowly  ;  in  some  cases  it  may 
contain  no  food.  There  is  frequent  expulsion  of  soft, 
whitish,  yellowish  or  greenish  excrement,  which  is 
irritating  to  the  cloaca  and  to  the  neighboring  parts. 
The  droppings  gradually  become  more  liquid  until  a 
severe  diarrhea  sets  in.  The  expulsion  of  the  excre- 
ment may  be  accompanied  by  a  spasmodic  and  pain- 
ful contraction  of  the  bowels  which  causes  the  bird  to 
strain  or  to  stop  suddenly  when  walking.  The  mucous 
mem])rane  of  the  cloaca  becomes  inflamed,  and  the 
feathers  surrounding  it  are  stuck  or  glued  together. 
There  is    increased   thirst,    elevation    of   temperature. 


90  DISKASKS    OF    POULTRV. 

hemorrhages  from  the  intestines  may  occur,  and  the 
progressive  weakness  and  exhaustion  soon  end  in 
death.  In  the  mild  cases  of  gastro -intestinal  catarrh 
there  may  be  no  symptoms  other  than  those  of  diarrhea, 
Init  in  the  more  severe  cases  of  this  disease  and  in  gas- 
tro -enteritis  and  enteritis  the  greater  part  or  all  of  the 
symptoms  mentioned  above  are  observed. 

Tric.vtmkxt. —  In    the    treatment    of    this   class   of 
diseases  it  is  especially  important  that  the  cause  should 
be  sought  and  removed.     See  that  the  birds  are  com- 
fortable and  not  exposed  to  draughts, cold, or  dampness. 
Give  pure  drinking  water  and  regulate  the  food.     Al- 
low  small   quantities  of  mash  or  cooked   food,  with 
some  chopped  beef.     Put  a  handful  of  oatmeal  in  the 
drinking  water  or  give  milk  for  drink.  Give  a  table- 
spoonful  of  olive   oil    as  a  laxative  to   carrj^   off   any 
irritating  matters  that  may  be  in  the  intestine,    then 
follow  with  yi  to  1  grain  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  2 
grains  of  subnitrate  of  bismuth  in  a  little  water  three 
times  a  day.     In  cases   where   the   diarrhea  becomes 
serious,  with  symptoms  of  pain,  fever,  or  bloody  dis- 
charges, omit  the  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  give  Vs  grain 
powdered   opium  and  2   grains  subnitrate  of  bismuth 
every  four  hours.   If  the  diarrhea  persists  after  the  fever 
has  disappeared  and  the  api^etite  is  returning,  it  may 
be  checked  with  laudanum  5  to  10  drops;   or  give  10 
drops  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  laudanum  and  tinct- 
ure of  catechu ;  or  in  mild  cases  add  one  to  two  drams 
of  sulphate  of  iron  to  the  pint  of  drinking  water. 

CONSTIPATION,    INTESTINAL    OBSTRUCTION. 

Constipation  is  due  to  an  abnormal  dryness  and 
hardness  of  the  contents  of  the  intestines,  which  leads 
to  the  accumulation  of  the  contained  substances,  and 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  91 

the  consequent  distention  and  obstruction  of  the  in- 
testinal passage.  It  is  sometimes  caused  by  dry,  as- 
tringent food;  in  other  cases  it  results  from  some  irri- 
tation of  the  mucous  membranes ;  it  may  be  due  to  the 
unnatural  dryness  of  the  intestine,  which  often  occurs 
after  attacks  of  diarrhea.  The  intestine  may  also  be 
obstructed  by  masses  of  gravel  and  by  quantities  of 
parasitic  worms.  These  obstructions  may  be  found  in 
any  part  of  the  intestinal  tract.  Frequently,  obstruc- 
tion occurs  at  the  lower  end  of  the  intestine  near  the 
external  opening.  This  is  caused  either  by  irritation 
of  the  cloaca  or  by  the  drying  of  excrement  upon 
the  feathers  about  the  anus,  and  its  continued  collec- 
tion until  the  expulsion  of  the  intestinal  contents  can 
no  longer  be  accomplished.  In  all  of  these  cases 
there  necessarily  follows  a  great  accumulation  of  mat- 
ter in  the  intestine  above  the  obstructed  point;  the 
moisture  is  absorbed  from  this, it  becomes  dry  and  hard, 
irritation  and  inflammation  are  produced  sooner  or 
later  and  the  life  of  the  bird  is  seriously  threatened. 

Symptoms. —  Birds  which  are  affected  with  serious 
constipation  or  intestinal  obstruction  become  dull,  lose 
their  appetite,  stand  with  arched  back,  roughened 
plumage,  walk  with  more  or  less  difficulty,  are  at  times 
uneasy  and  make  frequent  attempts  to  expel  the 
excrement.  By  careful  examination,  the  hard  impact- 
ed intestine  may  often  be  felt  through  the  abdominal 
walls  or  the  obstruction  of  the  cloaca  may  be  dis- 
covered. Frequently,  the  dried  mass  of  excrement 
may  be  seen  adhering  to  the  feathers  and  blocking  the 
external  opening  of  the  bowels. 

Treatment. —  When  the  obstruction  has  commen- 
ced and  is  maintained  by  accumulations  of  the  excre- 


92  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

mciit  u])on  the  feathers,  the  first  step  is  to  get  rid  of 
this  ohstructing  mass.  It  should  be  soaked  in  warm 
water  until  softened,  and  then  by  clipping  some  of  the 
feathers  about  the  vent  it  is  easilj'  removed.  If  the 
cloaca  is  filled  with  a  hardened  mass,  this  too  should 
be  softened  with  warm  water  or  with  olive  oil,  and 
carefully  manii)ulated  until  it  can  be  ])ressed  out  or 
otherwise  removed  without  injury  to  the  bird.  Oil 
may  be  inserted  around  such  an  obstruction  with  a 
small  S3'ringe,  or,  in  the  absence  of  a  syringe,  an  oil 
can,  such  as  is  used  for  oiling  machinery,  answers  the 
purpose  very  well.  After  the  oil  has  been  applied 
freely,  it  may  be  necessary  to  wait  an  liour  or  two  for 
it  to  penetrate  and  soften  the  obstruction  before  much 
progress  can  be  made  towards  its  remo\-al  by  manipu- 
lation. The  handle  of  a  small  spoon  or  a  similar  blunt 
instrument  is  often  of  assistance  in  clearing  out  the 
contents  of  the  cloaca. 

When  there  is  serious  constipation  or  when  obstruc- 
tion has  taken  place  higher  u])  in  the  intestine  where 
it  can  not  be  reached  by  external  applications,  laxative 
or  purgative  medicines  are  necessar3\  The  most  suc- 
cessful of  these  are  Epsom  salts  twenty  to  thirty  grains 
dissolved  in  a  tables])oonful  of  water;  castor  oil  one  to 
two  teaspoonfuls ;  or  calomel  one  to  two  grains  made 
into  pills  with  butter  or  lard.  The  constipation  should 
also  be  corrected  as  far  as  possible  by  regulating  the 
rations  of  the  birds.  Give  soft,  watery  mashes,  green 
feed  and  bran  until  the  bowels  appear  to  be  once  more 
in  a  normal  condition.  The  skillful  feeder  will  gen- 
erally prevent  both  diarrhea  and  constipation  by  care 
ful  attention  to  the  diet. 

TOXIC   GASTRO-ENTERITIS. 

Acute  inflammation  of  the  intestinal  tract  is  frequent- 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  93 

ly  seen  in  poultry  as  a  result  of  taking  irritant  pois- 
ons into  the  stomach.  The  symptoms  are  inflamma- 
tion of  the  mouth,  diarrhea,  trembling,  convulsions, 
prostration  and  drowsiness.  The  affected  bird  seeks 
a  dark  and  quiet  place  and  is  found  with  roughened 
plumage,  the  head  drawn  down  to  the  body,  and  is 
usuall}^  in  a  sleeping  or  comatose  condition.  Unfortun- 
ately, the  poisoning  is  not  usually  discovered  until  too 
late  for  successful  treatment. 

The  general  treatment  is  the  same  as  for  simple 
gastro -enteritis,  and  with  some  poisons  antidotes  may 
be  administered,  though  in  most  cases  treatment  is 
without  avail.  The  most  common  poisons  to  which 
poultry  gain  access  are  the  following  : 

Chloride  of  sodium  or  common  sail,  concentrated  /ye, 
and  nitrate  of  soda.  Common  salt  is  obtained  general  - 
ly  from  brine  when  pork,  beef  or  fish  barrels  are  emp- 
tied, or  from  eating  salt  meat.  Concentrated  lye  is 
often  carelessly  left  about  the  premises  where  birds  can 
reach  it.  Nitrate  of  soda  being  frequently  used  as  a  fer- 
tilizer is  one  of  the  most  accessible  poisons.  Treatment 
shouldconsist  of  abundant  mucilaginous  drinks  such  as 
infusion  of  flaxseed,  together  with  stimulants,  strong 
coffee  and  brandy  being  particularly  useful. 

Arsenic,  lead,  copper,  zinc  d,n6.  phosphorus  may  cause 
accidental  poisoning  with  poultr}'.  Arsenic  in  the 
form  of  Paris  green,  London  purple,  etc.,  is  commonly 
used  on  the  farm  for  poisoning  insects ;  lead  and  zinc 
are  used  in  paints ;  copper  is  used  to  destroy  fungi  on 
grain,  fruit  trees,  vines,  and  plants;  and  phosphorus 
exists  on  the  heads  of  matches.  Treatment  of  arsenical 
poisoning  should  be  with  sulphate  of  iron  and  calcined 
magnesia,  white  of  e:gg,  and  flaxseed  mucilage.  For 
lead,  copper,  zinc  and  phosphorus  give  large  quanti- 


94  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

ties  of  white  of  egg,  mucilage  and  sugar  water, 
liulenberg  reconiinends  charcoal  j^ills  for  phosi^horus 
poisoning,  or  sulphate  of  copper  ma}'  be  given  to  cause 
formation  of  insoluble  phosphate  of  copper.  Sulphates 
of  soda,  potash,  or  magnesia  may  be  given  in  lead 
"Doisoning  with  the  object  of  forming  insoluble  sulphate 
of  lead. 

Among  the  vegetable  poisons  ergot  of  rye  is  one  of 
the  most  common.  It  causes  trembling,  vertigo,  in- 
toxication, coma,  great  weakness,  and  gangrene  of  the 
comb,  beak,  tongue  or  limbs.  As  treatment  give  stimu- 
lants as  coffee,  brand}',  camphor,  and  quinine. 
bactp:ri.\l  enteritis. 

Inflammation  of  the  mucous  surface  of  the  intestines 
due  to  the  multiplication  of  irritating  bacteria  must  be 
classed  among  the  most  common  and  most  injurious 
diseases  of  fowls.  This  disease  occurs  in  chickens, 
turkeys,  ducks  and  probably  most  other  kinds  of  birds 
and  is  frequently  mistaken  for  cholera.  It  is  caused 
by  several  distinct  varieties  of  bacteria,  and  may  be 
either  acute  or  chronic  in  its  form. 

Causation. — The  principal  germs  which  have  been 
studied  in  connection  with  outbreaks  of  enteritis  in 
birds  are  : 

1.  The  bacillusgallinaruin  (Klein,  Lucet) ,  a  short 
bacillus  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  intestines  of 
affected  birds,  and,  also,  in  the  blood.  The  disease 
may  be  produced  in  chickens  and  turkeys  by  inoculat- 
ing this  germ  beneath  the  skin.  If  the  germs  are  fed 
with  ordinary  food  they  do  not  cause  disease,  but  if 
fed  with  animal  food  the  disease  may  be  produced. 
Fowls  die  in  about  five  days  after  inoculation.  In- 
fection   occurs   from   contaminated    food    or   drinking 


DISKASHS    OF    POULTRY.  95 

water.  The  bacillus  does  not  remain  localizLcl  in  the 
intestine  but  may  be  found  in  the  liver,  kidneys  and 
blood  of  birds  which  have  succunil)ed  to  the  disease. 
Pii^eons  are  insusceptible. 

2.  The  bacilli  described  by  Cornil  and  Toupet  are 
short  rods  found  in  outbreaks  of  this  disease  among 
ducks.  They  are  found  in  the  intestines,  heart,  liver, 
spleen  and  blood.  The  disease  may  be  transmitted  to 
ducks  by  inoculation  or  feeding  with  the  germs. 
Chickens  and  pigeons  are  not  affected  by  it. 

3.  The  Mbrio  Metchnikovi,  also  called  the  .S)!'/;-//- 
lum  Mctclniikovi,  is  a  spiral -shaped  germ  resembling 
the  comma -bacillus.  Chickens  are  vety  susceptible  to 
these  germs,  and  whether  they  are  introduced  by  the 
air-passages  or  digestive  organs,  or  inoculated  beneath 
the  skin,  they  find  their  way  to  the  intestines  and  cause 
inflammation  with  the  sj-mptoms  of  cholera.  Pigeons 
may  be  infected  hy  inoculation,  but  do  not  suffer  from 
this  germ  when  it  is  fed  to  them.  It  is  seen  from  this 
brief  summary  that  bacterial  enteritis  affects  principal- 
ly turkeys,  ducks  and  barnyard  fowls.  The  outbreaks 
of  this  disease  are  usually  confined  to  a  single  farm, 
they  generally  begin  early  in  summer,  are  at  first  acute 
and  very  fatal  in  their  effects,  but  gradually  diminish 
in  intensity  until  thej'  finally  disappear.  Birds  of  all 
ages  are  affected,  though  the  younger  ones  are  appar- 
ently more  susceptible. 

Symptoms. —  In  the  acute  form  the  symptoms  de- 
velop rapidly.  The  affected  birds  are  dull,  listless, 
and  indisposed  to  move.  They  have  considerable 
thirst,  but  are  without  appetite.  The  comb  becomes 
pale,  the  excrements  at  first  solid  and  of  a  greenish 
color,  later  are  soft,  liquid,  abundant  and  bluish  green. 
As  the  disease  advances,  the  sick  birds  stand  with  the 


96  DISKASKS   OF    Pori/rKY. 

back  rounded,  the  plnmac^e  erect,  the  winces  droopinj^:, 
th*^  head  drawn  down  to  the  body,  and  the  eyes  closed. 
They  gape  frequently,  their  walk  is  slow,  hesitating 
and  unsteady.  The  diarrhea  persists,  the  excrements 
are  colored  with  blood,  the  strength  is  rapidly  lost, 
and  walking  becomes  more  and  more  difficult.  In  the 
later  stages  of  the  disease,  the  bird  sleeps  most  of  the 
time  and  can  scarcely  be  aroused,  a  viscid,  grayish 
liquid  escapes  from  the  mouth,  its  comb  becomes  pur- 
ple, and  it  finally  falls  upon  its  side  and  dies  after  a 
few  struggles. 

In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease  the  temperature  is 
elevated  two  degrees  to  four  degrees  F. ,  but  later  drops 
three  degrees  to  five  degrees  F.  below  normal.  The 
birds  die  in  from  one  to  two  weeks  after  they  are  at- 
tacked. The  chronic  form  of  the  disease  is  character- 
ized by  slower  development  and  less  marked  symptoms. 
The  birds  are  sick  three  or  four  weeks  before  they  die. 
Their  appetite  is  capricious,  the  feathers  are  rough  and 
have  lost  their  lustre,  the  comb  and  flesh  are  pale  and 
bloodless,  and  there  is  an  exhausting  diarrhea.  If  the 
birds  are  handled  the  owner  is  surprised  at  the  great 
loss  in  weight,  as  the  flesh  appears  to  have  almost 
disappeared.  This  loss  of  strength  and  flesh  continues 
until  the  bird  dies  from  exhaustion.  In  some  cases 
temporary  improvement  is  seen;  the  diarrhea  disap- 
pears; the  comb  partially  regains  its  colors;  the  bird 
appears  stronger;  but  suddenly  there  comes  a  relapse, 
the  symptoms  are  intensified,  and  death  follows  in  a 
day  or  two.  In  a  few  cases  the  improvement  is  per- 
manent, and  the  affected  birds  finally  recover  their 
health  and  flesh. 

In  examining  the  carcasses  of  the  dead  birds,  the 
liver    is    fo.ind    greatly  enlarged   and   di.-^tended  with 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  97 

blood,  and  if  a  cut  is  made  into  it  considerable  blood 
escapes.  The  spleen  is  also  enlarged,  but  pale;  the 
intestines  and  particularly  the  caeca  are  red  and  con- 
tain considerable  mucus.  In  the  chronic  form  of  the 
disease  the  liver  may  be  found  smaller  than  in  health. 

The  disease  is  distinguished  from  the  cholera  by  its 
longer  duration  ,  the  tendency  to  the  chronic  form,  by 
its  limitation  to  a  single  premises  and  by  the  fact  that 
it  is  not  transmitted  to  rabbits  bj^  inoculation.  It  is 
very  destructive  and  from  fifty  to  eighty  per  cent  of 
the  fowls  on  a  farm  may  die  before  the  disease  disap- 
pears. 

Treatment. — To  prevent  outbreaks  of  bacterial 
enteritis  cleanliness  should  be  enforced  about  the 
poultry  buildings,  and  the  birds  should  be  allowed 
only  pure  and  clean  drinking  water  and  food  that  is 
not  undergoing  putrefaction.  When  fowls  are  com- 
pelled to  slake  their  thirst  by  drinking  the  foul  water 
of  stagnant  ponds,  or  the  seepage  from  the  barn  yard, 
or  w^hen  they  are  fed  wnth  rotten  grain  or  vegetables 
or  with  putrid  meat,  this  disease  is  liable  to  develop. 
It  is,  therefore,  important  to  avoid  this  exciting  cause 
of  the  malady.  The  trouble  may  also  be  introduced 
with  sick  fowls  that  are  brought  upon  the  place,  and, 
hence,  the  necessity  of  isolating  or  quarantining  all 
new  arrivals  until  their  perfect  health  is  assured.  By 
such  a  precaution  not  only  this  disease  but  all  other 
forms   of   contagion    may  in  many  cases  be  avoided. 

After  the  disease  has  broken  out  among  the  poultry 
on  a  farm,  the  first  effort  for  its  eradication  should  be 
a  general  cleaning  up  and  disinfection.  The  disinfec- 
tant may  be  a  five  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
for  saturating  the  floor  and  woodwork  of  the  build- 
ings, followed  by  a  thorough  application  of  lime  wash. 


98  DISEASKS    OF    Pori.TRV. 

The  drinkiiicj  vessels  and  feeding  troughs  should  l)e 
well  scalded  with  boiling  water.  This  cleaning  and 
disinfection  should  l)e  ftequentl^'  repeated  until  the 
disease  disappears.  The  medical  treatment  of  the 
birds  has  three  objects  in  view:  1.  To  disinfect  the 
intestinal  passage  2.  To  arrest  the  diarrhea.  3.  To 
renew  the  strength.  A  good  treatment  is  to  give  sub- 
nitrate  of  bismuth  three  grains,  ])owdered  cinnamon 
or  cloves  one  grain,  powdered  willow  charcoal  three 
grains.  This  ma^'  be  given  twice  a  day  mixed  with 
the  food  or  made  into  pills  with  flour  and  water.  If 
not  successful  with  the  formula  just  given  try  sub-ni- 
trate of  bismuth  three  grains,  bicarbonate  of  soda  one 
grain,  powdered  cinchona  bark  two  grains,  mix  and 
give  three  times  a  day  in  a  paste  made  with  rice  flour. 
When  the  diarrhea  is  arrested  the  bismuth  and  soda  are 
no  longer  indicated,  out  a  tonic  is  still  advisable.  For 
this  Megnin  recommends  Powdered  fennel,  anis,  cori- 
ander and  cinchona  of  each  thirty  grains,  powdered 
gentian  and  ginger  of  each  one  dram,  powdered  sul- 
phate of  iron  fifteen  grains.  This  is  thoroughly  mixed 
and  may  be  given  in  the  feed  so  that  each  fowl  will  re- 
ceive from  two  to  four  grains  twice  a  da3^ 

As  intestinal  disinfectants  are  especially  indicated  in 
this  disease,  naphthol,  benzonaphthol,  betol  and  sali- 
cylate of  bismuth  have  been  tried  and  are  highly  re- 
commended. The  dose  of  each  of  these  drugs  is  from 
,'/^  to  1  grain  for  a  full-grown  fowl.  The  following 
combinations  will  be  found  useful :  Betol  yi  grain, 
subnitrate  of  bismuth  1  grain,  powdered  opium  y% 
grain.  -  Mix  and  make  into  pellets  with  a  little  syrup. 
Give  at  one  dose  ever}-  four  hours.  Or,  benzonaph- 
thol and  salicylate  of  bismuth  of  each  '-j  grain,  Dover's 
powder  ^4  grain. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  99 

The  food  of  affected  birds  should  be  nutritious, 
easily  digested,  and  not  too  wet.  Middlings  and  meal, 
rice  liour  or  dry  bread  may  be  mixed  with  boiled  milk 
into  a  stiff  paste  and  fed  either  alone  or  with  the  ad  - 
dition  of  boiled  and  finely-chopped  beef  or  hard-boiled 
egg.  The  ration  should  be  light  until  the  diarrhea  is 
checked  and  other  symptoms  of  improvement  are  seen. 

ASTHENIA,  GOING    LIGHT. 

A  disease  in  fowls  in  which  the  most  noticeable  de- 
parture from  the  normal  condition  was  their  extreme 
emaciation  has  been  investigated  by  Dr.  Dawson  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  The  appetites  of  the 
affected  birds  were  voracious,  there  was  no  evidence  of 
existing  diarrhea,  but  on  the  contrary  slight  constipa- 
tion. The  disease  was  chronic,  ending  in  death  in 
about  three  months.  There  was  no  increase  in  tem- 
perature. The  comb  and  wattles  were  paler  than 
usual.  There  were  350  fowls  on  the  premises  30  of 
which  had  died  and  100  were  sick  at  the  time  of  the 
investigation.  The  diet  consisted  of  a  morning  meal 
of  mash  made  of  six  parts  bran,  four  parts  of  mid- 
dlings, and  two  parts  of  meat  meal  with  condition 
powder  and  charcoal.  They  had  plenty  of  small 
gravel  and  crushed  oyster  shells.  At  night,  wheat, 
corn  and  oats  were  fed.  Adult  Brahma  fowls  seemed 
most  susceptible.  The  disease  makes  itself  known 
through  loss  of  flesh  and  was,  therefore,  called  "going 
light."  The  symptoms  appeared  to  be  aggravated  by 
damp  weather.  The  disease  did  not  exist,  so  far  as 
could  be  ascertained,  upon  any  of  the  neighboring 
premises. 

Examination  after  death  reveals  extreme  emaciation 
of  the  muscular  system  and  almost  complete  absence 
of  fat.     The  walls  of  the  duodenum  were  reddened  and 


100  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

there  was  catarrh  of  the  mucous  surface.  A  peculiar 
bacterium  was  found  in  the  duodenal  contents.  A 
guinea  pig  was  inoculated  subcutaneously  with  a 
small  quantity  of  material  from  the  duodenum  and  died 
in  the  course  of  twenty -four  hours  with  an  extremely 
ctdematous  and  necrotic  condition  of  the  tissues  over 
the  abdomen.  The  germ  was  found  in  the  tissues 
at  the  point  inoculated  and,  also,  in  the  liver, 
spleen,  abdominal  exudate,  heart-blood  and  lungs. 
Rabbits  were  inoculated  and  fed  with  cultures  of  the 
organism  without  result,  except  when  half  a  cubic  cen- 
timeter was  iniected  into  the  abdomen,  in  which  case 
death  followed  within  twentj'-four  hours.  In  the 
rabbits  treated  inthis  wav,  there  was  severe  inflamma- 
tion of  the  duodenum  and  omentum,  and  the  germ  was 
recovered  in  large  numbers  from  the  walls  and  con- 
tents of  the  duodenum  and  from  the  liver.  Chickens 
were  inoculated  subcutaneously,  into  the  abdomen  and 
into  the  veins,  and  were  also  fed  upon  cultures  with- 
out causing  disease  in  them.  Pigeons,  mice  and  rats 
were  refactory. 

The  presence  of  this  germ  in  the  diseased  intestines 
of  the  fowls  and  its  pronounced  disease -producing 
powers  when  inoculated  in  guinea  pigs  and  rabbits 
warrants  the  suspicion  that  it  is  the  cause  of  the  duo- 
denitis and  emaciation  of  the  fowls.  It  is  probably 
necessary  for  it  to  reach  the  interior  of  the  duodenum 
before  it  can  cause  disease  in  birds.  This  germ  differs 
materially  from  the  microbes  of  bacterial  enteritis  de- 
scribed by  other  investigators,  but  the  diseases  are  of 
a  similar  nature  and  the  treatment  shouia  be  the  same. 
PSOROSPERMIC    ENTERITIS. 

This  is  a  disease  caused  by  the  lowest  forms  of  ani- 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  101 

mal  parasites,  viz.,  the  protozoa.  The  varieties  of 
protozoa  which  cause  enteritis  are  generally  spoken  oi 
as psorospenfis  and  the  disease  which  they  produce  is 
known  as  psorospermosis  or  psorospcrmic  enteritis. 
There  are  two  species  of  psorosperms  which  have  been 
found  to  produce  inflammation  in  the  intestines  of 
fowls:  The  lit))ieria  dubia  {Chrgarina  avium  intestiyi- 
alis)  and  the  Coecidium  tenellum.  As  the  symptoms, 
the  appearance  of  the  intestines,  and  the  treatment 
varies  considerably  from  bacterial  enteritis,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  devote  a  special  article  to  the  psorospermic 
form. 

Cal'SATIon. —  These  parasites,  probablj^  in  the  con- 
dition of  spores,  are  taken  into  the  digestive  tube  with 
the  food  or  drink.  They  multiply  along  the  course  of 
the  intestine,  penetrate  the  mucous  membrane,  pro- 
duce irritation  and  set  up  a  series  of  changes  in  the 
tissues  which  very  seriously  affect  the  functions  of  the 
invaded  organs. 

The  Eimeria  dubia  mutiplies  also  in  the  con- 
nective tissue  beneath  the  mucous  membrane^  form- 
ing small  cysts,  seen  as  whitish  points,  which  are 
found  filled  with  its  spores.  The  inflammation  may 
extend  even  to  the  i)eritoneal  coat  of  the  intestine,  thus 
producing  a  complication  of  peritonitis  with  en- 
teritis. The  lesions  reseniMe,  more  or  less,  those  of 
diphtheria  and  tuberculosis,  aiul  as  the  liver  and  lungs 
are  often  invaded  we  can  understand  why  the  disease 
has  been  called  tubereiilo-diphtheria  by  Megnin,  Cornil 
and  others. 

The  Coccidinm  tenellum  is  generally  found  localized 
in  the  caeca.  It  multiplies  in  the  mucous  membrane, 
producing  whitish  patches,  denuded  surfaces,  and  ul- 
cers, and  causes  a  \^xy  intense  inflammation. 


102  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

Symptoms.— Wlifii  only  a  snuill  nunibcr  of  the 
nodules  of  the  Emioia  diibia  exist  in  the  intestine  of 
a  fowl,  no  sj-mptoms  of  disease  are  seen  and  the  bird 
does  not  appear  to  suffer.  When,  however,  the  lesions 
are  more  numerous,  and  particularly  when  the  germs 
are  multiplying  on  the  mucous  surface,  considerable 
inflammation  results,  the  processes  of  digestion  and 
assimilation  are  interfered  with  and  death  may  result. 
The  principal  symptoms  are  depression,  loss  of  appe- 
tite, diarrhea,  weakness,  and  rapid  loss  of  weight. 

The  Coccidium  teticUuiu  produces  a  more  acute,  and 
rapidly  fatal  disease.     There  is  progressive  weakness, 
stupor,  loss  of  appetite,  difficulty  of  walking,  diarrhea, 
sometimes  constipation,  plaintive  cries  and  death  in  a 
few  days.     With  young  chicks  there  is  diarrhea  with 
whitish   excrement   followed    by  constipation.     With 
adult  fowls  the  diarrhea  is  a])undant  and  the  excre- 
ment may  be  of  a   ])rick-red  color  or  even    streaked 
with  blood.     It  is  very  destructive  to  young  chickens, 
frequently  a  whole  brood  dies  of  it,  and  it  may  destroy 
the  greater  part  of  those  which  the  possessor  of  infected 
premises    attempts    to  raise.     An  examination  of  the 
c^ca  generally  shows    active    inflammation,    though 
with  the  chicks  which  showed  constipation  the  organs 
named  were  found  of  a  normal  color,  but  distended 
with  a  hard,  yellowish  exudate  containing  many  of  the 
parasites. 

Treatment. —  Preventive  treatment  is  the  most 
satisfactory.  Disinfect  the  houses  and  runs  with 
strong  carbolic  acid  solution  (three  to  five  per  cent), 
and  scald  out  the  feeding  troughs  and  drinking  vessels 
with  boiling  water.  If  possible,  change  the  birds  to 
fresh  ground  that  has  never  been  infected. 

As    medical    treatment,    hyposulphite   of   soda    five 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY.  103 

grains,  quinine  (sulphate)  one  grain,  sulnitrite  oi 
bismuth  two  grains  may  be  given  two  or  three  times  a 
da}'  to  grown  birds,  and  less,  in  proportion  to  the  size, 
to  the  young  chickens.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
powdered  fennel,  anis,  corriander,  gentian,  ginger,  and 
aloes  has  been  recommended  and  may  be  given  in  the 
dose  of  about  five  grains  for  adults,  mixed  with  soft 
feed. 

The  chief  reliance  in  combating  this  disease  should 
l)e  placed  in  the  efforts  to  eradicate  the  contagion. 
If  disinfection  and  change  of  ground  are  not  success- 
ful, dispose  of  all  fowls  for  a  time,  ]:)lough  upth^ 
ground,  clean  up  thoroughly  and  start  with  new  stock, 
preferably  incubator  chickens,  from  healthy  flocks. 

INFECTIOUS  EXTERO -HEPATITIS  OF  TURKEYS — BI.ACK 

HEAD. 

For  ten  years  or  more,  reports  from  certain  sections 
of  the  New  England  States  have  indicated  the  exist- 
ence of  a  serious  disease  of  turkeys,  locally  called 
"black  head,"  which  differs  in  important  respects 
from  any  malady  previously  known  as  affecting  pjultry. 
How  widely  this  disease  is  distributed  over  the  world 
is  not  yet  determined,  but  information  from  the  Mid- 
dle, Western  and  Southern  States  points  to  its  preval- 
ence in  those  sections,  and  accounts  have  also  come  to 
hand  of  its  ravages  in  Europe.  From  these  facts  it  may 
be  concluded  that  the  disease  is  one  which  has  been 
affecting  turkeys  for  many  years  and  has  been  exten- 
sively disseminated,  and  that,  owing  to  the  lack  of 
systematic  investigation,  it  was  not  described  until  its 
study  was  undertaken  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry.  Considerable  time  was  devoted  to  this 
subject  by  Smith  in  1893  and  1S94,  and  by  Moore  in 
1895  and  1896. 

^9^      or  THK         '^    \ 

(university] 


104 


DISKASl-S    or    POULTRY 


Symptoms. —  The  symptoms  of  infectious  entero- 
hepatitis  have  not  been  very  carefully  observed  and 
recorded.  It  is  not  untilthe  disease  has  made  consider- 
able progress  that  any  signs  of  ill -health 
can  be  detected.  The  affected  birds 
show  more  or  less  loss  of  appetite,  weak- 
ness and  emaciation,  though  one  or 
more  of  these  symptoms  may  not  be 
constant. 

Diarrhea  is  the  most  marked  and  con- 
stant symptom  and  may  be  expected 
sooner  or  later  in  the  course  of  the  dis- 
ease. It  results  from  the  inflammation 
in  the  cctca,  which  is  the  starting  point 
of  the  affection,  and  this  imflammatiou 
exists  in  all  cases.  Peculiar  discolora- 
tions  of  the  head  occur  at  the  height  of 
ll'.e  disease,  which  have  led  to  the  pop- 
ular designation  of  "black  head,"  but 
Smith  is  of  the  opinion  that  these  are 
not  constant  and  that  they  may  accom- 
pan}'  other  conditions. 
The  disease  attacks  quite  young  turkeys, 
having  l)een  recognized  in  a  bird  only 
three  weeks  old,  and  in  this  it  had 
already  made  considerable  progress. 
The  young  birds  seem  to  be  most  sus- 
ceptible, and,  as  in  the  older  birds 
Fi?.i7.— Caeca cf  the    organs    have    the     appearance    of 

hea.Uhvturkev.  ,.  ,.  ,  ,        . 

long  standnig  disease,  the  conclusion 
has  been  reached  that  the  infection  usually  occurs  at  an 
early  period  of  life.  The  infection  is  most  actively 
propagated  during  mid -summer,  but  whether  this  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  there  are  more  young  birds  at  that 


DISEASKS    OF    POULTRY. 


1U5 


time,  or  whether  the  warm  season  favors  the  dissemi- 
nation and  the  development  of  the  disease  is  not  clear. 
That  infection  may  occur  in  older 
birds  and  in  cold  weather  is  de- 
monstrated by  Moore's  experi- 
ments in  which  tnrkej's  five 
months  old  and  weio^hing  six 
to  eight  pounds  were  exposed 
in  November  and  December,  and 
in  which  the  disease  was  well  de- 
veloped by  the  latter  part  of  De- 
cember and  the  early  part  of 
January. 

The  disease  begins  in  the  caeca; 
sometimes  it  is  found  in  but  one 
of  these  organs  but  oftener  it  af- 
fects both.  With  the  progress  of 
the  disease,  the  mucous  mem- 
brane may  be  shed  and  acoagu- 
lable  fluid  poured  out  into  the 
ccecum.  In  some  cases  this  ex- 
udate appears  as  isolated  masses, 
which  adhere  to  certain  spots  of 
the  nuicous  memljrane;  in  others, 
it  fills  the  entire  tube  with  a  yel- 
lowish-white mass  or  plug,  built 
up  of  concentric  layers  and  con- 
sisting of  a  mixture  of  blood 
corpuscles,  fibrin  and  round  cells. 
The  wall  of  the  affected  ca-cum  is  thickened,  and  the 
inflammation  may  extend  to  the  outer  or  serous  coat 
upon  which  3'ellowish  exudates  are  sometimes  seen  that 
may  bind  the  organ  to  the  other  ciccum,  to  other  parts 
of  the  intestine  or  to  the  abdominal  wall.     In  no  case 


Caeca  of  diseas- 


106  DISKASKS    OF    POUI/rKV 


Fig-.  19. — Liver...    ..v.wwi,   mi  key. 

were  other  regions  of  the  digestive  tract  found  affected. 
Associated  with  this  disease  of  the  cceca,  there  is  in 
nearly  all  cases  a  more  or  less  serious  disease  of  the 
liver.  This  organ  is  enlarged  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  its  tissue  which  is  affected.  It  may  be 
twice  the  normal  size,  and  over  its  surface  are  seen 
roundish  discolored  spots,  varjnng  from  one -eighth  to 
two -thirds  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Some  of  these 
spots  are  sharply  defined  circular  areas  of  a  lemon 
3^ellow  or  an  ochre  yellow  color.  This  yellow  sub- 
stance represents  dead  tissue.  In  other  cases  the  spots 
are  whitish  and  shade  off  somewhat  gradually  into  the 
surrounding  tissue.  Another  class  of  spots  are  of  a 
mottled  brownish  color,  darker  than  the  surrounding 
liver  tissue.  These  may  have  a  central  j-ellow  nucleus 
of  dead  tissue,  and  a  narrow  outer  border  of  the  same 
character,  or  the  border  may  be  a  dark  brownish  cir- 
cular line.     The  entire  spot  has  an  indistinct  appear-- 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY 


107 


Fig'.  20.— Liver  of  diseased  turkey. 

ance  and  is  flattened  or  even  slig^htly  depressed  below 
the  surface.  The  liver  may  have  few  or  manj-  of  these 
centers  of  disease,  which  when  cut  across  are  found  to 
be  deeply  imbedded  in  the  tissue  of  the  ors^an  and  to 
have  in  general  a  spherical  form.  Occasionally  the 
lesions  are  very  extensive  and  the  death  of  large  por- 
tions of  the  liver  tissue  follows. 

Caus.\tion. —  The  disease  is  caused  by  one  of  the 
protozoa,  which  Smith  has  named  the  Amoeba  melca- 
gridis.  This  parasite  is  taken  into  the  digestive  or- 
gans with  the  food  or  drink,  it  attacks  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  Cccca,  causing  the  development  of  in- 
flammation and  leading  to  the  changes  already  describ- 
ed. The  affection  of  the  caecum  is  due  primarily  to 
the  multiplication  of  the  micro-organism,  which  takes 


108  DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY. 

place  chiefl}'  in  the  mucous  membrane  or  the  sub -mu- 
cous tissue,  or  it  may,  though  rarely,  extend  into  the 
muscular  coat.  According  to  Smith,  the  parasites  do 
not  invade  the  epitliclium  at  any  time. 

The  changes  in  the  liver  are  most  easily  explained 
•by  assuming  that  the  micro -parasites  are  conveyed  by 
the  blood  directly  from  the  diseased  cceca  into  the  liver 
and  there  deposited  in  different  places.  In  this  organ, 
they  begin  to  multiply  and  spread  in  all  directions, 
thereby  forming  the  spherical  centers  of  disease  which 
appear  as  circles  on  the  surface  of  the  liver.  This 
theory  is  borne  out  by  the  results  of  the  microscopic 
examination. 

The  course  of  the  disease  is  variable.  In  some  cases, 
it  develops  rapidly  after  infection  and  the  affected 
birds  die  in  from  two  to  six  weeks.  In  other  cases, 
the  morbid  process  may  come  to  a  standstill,  but  the 
amount  of  dead  tissue  in  the  cteca  and 
liver  may  be  so  great  as  to  favor  the 
entrance  of  bacteria,  which  are  directly 
responsible  for  the  death  of  the  bird 
late  in  the  summer  or  fall.  In  still 
other  cases,  regenerative  processes  may      pij,.  :i._The  pro- 

,         .  11        j^  It        3„ ^_       tozoa  as  lliov  apoear 

begni  and  lead  to  complete  and  perma-  when  separated  fV.-m 

fresh  tissue,     x  lOOO. 

nent  recovery. 

During  the  course  of  the  affection,  the  parasitic  pro- 
tozoa multiply  in  the  caeca,  they  are  mixed  with  the 
intestinal  contents,  and  many  of  them  are  discharged 
with  the  excrement.  In  this  way  the  contagion  is 
spread.  The  food  and  drinking  water  become  con- 
taminated with  particles  of  excrement  containing  the 
parasites,  the  latter  are  taken  by  healthy  birds  into  the 
digestive  canal  along  which  they  proceed  until  the 
C£eca  are  reached,   and  here  they  multiply,   penetrate 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 


109 


V  » 

r"  s;  %    —  '^     *  ' 


.....    ..;v  -•# 


a 

a 


Fiff.  22.— Sections  of  diseased  liver;  a,  protozoa  in  space 
formerly  occupied  bv  liver  cells:  />,  capillaries  dilated  and 
filled  with  red  corpuscles;  r,   round  cells  or  leucocytes,  x  500. 

the  mucous  membrane  and  set  up  the   changes   which 
constitute  the  disease. 

Treatment. —  It  is  evident  that  the  treatment  of  in- 
fectious entero -hepatitis  must  be  principally  of  a  hy- 
gienic and  preventive  nature.  Where  the  disease  has 
existed  long  upon  a  farm,  the  roosting  places,  runs  and 
feeding  grounds  must  be  infected,  and  the  breeding 
stock  are  affected  in  a  chronic  form  and  are  continually 
disseminating  the  contagion.  This  being  the  case, 
adequate  measures  must  be  adopted  to  free  the  prem- 
ises  from   the   parasife  before  healthy   stock  can   be 


no 


1)I.si:a.ses  of  poultry 


raised.  Thorough  disinfection  should  of  course  be 
carried  out,  using  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  five  parts 
to  one  hundred  parts  of  water.  All  of  the  turkeys  on 
the  farm  should  be  killed  in  order  to  certainl}'  get  rid 
of  the  infected  ones.  In  starting  a  new  flock,  obtain 
eggs  from  health}'  stock  and  hatch  them  under  com- 
mon fowls  or  in  an  incubator.  Rai;-e  the  }  oung  tur- 
keys, if  possible,  on  a  part  of  the  farm  that  has  not 
been  infected.     By  following  this  course,  it  should  be 


eu. 


^;a^r:^t^ 


'     )  ■.'% 


f^% 


-> 


d 


Fiff.  23.— Section  of  mucous  membrane  of  diseased  cnecuni; 
"•nuclei  of  the  epithelium  of  a  crypt:  «'.  mucin  cell;  /■, 
spindle-shaped  cells;  r.  protozoa  situated  within  the  meshes 
of  the  reticulum;  </.  multinucleated  sriant' cell. -which  has 
enveloped  some  of  the  protozoa,  x  50O. 


I)ISHASF-:S    OF    POIT.TKV.  Ill 

possible  to  eradicate  the  disease  aud  obtain  a  healthy 
flock. 

The  medical  treatment  of  diseased  turkeys  has  not 
been  successful  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  could  be  profit- 
ably undertaken  in  any  but  exceptional  cases.  Among 
the  remedies  most  likely  to  be  beneficial  are  sulphur, 
sulphate  of  iron,  quinine,  salicylic  acid,benzonaphthol 
andbetol.  Where  a  flock  has  recently  been  infected 
it  would  be  well  to  try  these  remedies  with  a  view  of 
arresting  the  disease  in  the  mildly  affected  birds,  and 
of  preventing  the  infection  of  others  by  making  the  in  - 
testinal  contents  unsuitable  for  the  multiplication  of 
the  parasite.  Sulphur  5  to  10  grains,  sulphate  of  iron 
1  grain  may  be  combined  and  given  at  one  dose.  Or 
give  benzonaphthol  1  grain,  salicjdate  of  bismuth  1 
grain.  Or  give  sulphur  10  grains,  sulphate  of  iron  1 
grain,  sulphate  of  quinine  1  grain.  Hyposulphite  of 
sodium  ma3'  be  useful  in  doses  of  2  to  4  grains,  or  be- 
tol  in  the  dose  of  1  grain.  It  is  necessary  that  such 
remedies  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day  and 
continued  for  a  considerable  time  to  obtain  results. 
The  doses  mentioned  are  for  birds  weighing  four  or 
five  pounds. 

PARASITIC    W0K:\IS    WHICH    INFEST      THE      DIGESTIVE 
APPARATUS. 

A  large  number  of  species  of  animal  parasites  are  found 
in  the  various  organs  of  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the 
domesticated  birds.  Some  of  these  parasites  cause  dis- 
turbances of  the  digestive  functions  or  serious  disease, 
while  others  are  apparently  harmless.  Those  only  are 
referred  to  in  detail  which  are  of  most  importance  as 
disturbers  of  nutrition  or  producers  of  disease.  The 
parasitic  worms  may  be  grouped  as  tapeworms,  flukes, 
roundworms,  and  thorn -headed  worms. 


11 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY. 


I'AkASITlIS  OF  THK  CKSOPHAOUS  AND    STOMACH. 

The  DispharaffHS  spiralis,  a  round  worm  about 
one -third  inch  in  length  is  found  in  the  oesophagus  of 
fowls.  A  worm  supposed  to  be 
of  the  same  species  is  sometimes 
found  encysted  in  the  connective 
tissue  around  the  oesophagus, 
crop,  and  provenlriculus,  also 
in  the  walls  of  the  intestine  and 
in  the  mesentery.  The  Disphar- 
(i,^us  tiasidus,  a  worm  about 
one -fourth  inch  long  has  been 
found  in  the  walls  of  the  fowl's 
gizzard.  L,egros  reported  an 
epizootic  disease  caused  by  this 
worm  in  a  poultry -yard  where 
several  breeds  of  fowls  were 
kept,  of  which  the  Crevecoeurs 
suffered  most  severely.  The 
affected  birds  became  emaciated, 
were  dejected,  and  died  exhaust- 
ed without  having  lost  their 
appetite.  During  their  last  days 
they  were  unusually  voracious. 
The  gizzard  was  studded  with 
the  Displiaragiis  nasntns,  some 
of  which  were  entirely  hidden  in 
the  substance  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  while  others  were 
fixed  in  it  by  one  extremity, 
the  other  floating  freely  in  the  cavitj-  of  the  organ.  In 
certain  places  they  were  packed  together  in  a  compact 
mass. 


Fit?.  24. — Heterakis  perspi- 
cilluni.  (Asciuis  iii/lcxa.)  it, 
male,  /•,  female,     x  2. 


DISHASI-S    OF    POULTRY.  113 

The  T)-i< Iiosoma  contort init  is  a  round  worm,  the 
male  of  which  is  one -half  to  three -fourths  inch  in 
length  and  the  female  one  and  one-fourth  to  one  and 
one-half  inches.  It  is  found  in  the  cervical  dilatation 
of  the  oesophagus  where,  according  to  Railliet  and 
Lucet,  it  causes  in  Pekin  ducks  an  engorgement  or  ob- 
struction by  accumulation  of  food.  This  obstruction 
is  analogous  to  the  impacted  crop  found  in  fowls  and 
pigeons. 

The  disease  caused  by  these  parasites  has  been  called 
the  ingluvial  indigestion  of  ducks  and  has  been  at- 
tributed to  the  food  being  too  dry,  or  too  abundant,  or 
swallowed  too  hurriedly.  The  chief  factor  in  causing 
the  disease  appears  to  be  this  worm,  which  lives  in  the 
walls  of  the  oesophagus,  where  it  bores  channels  or 
galleries  and  weakens  the  tissues.  In  examining, 
after  death,  the  affected  birds,  the  cervical  portion  of 
the  oesophagus  was  found  enormously  distended  with 
food,  while  its  w^alls  were  very  thin  and  congested. 
To  the  naked  eye  or  through  a  hand  lens  the  mucous 
membrane  at  that  part  shows  white  or  light  yellow 
lines,  sometimes  slightly  raised  above  the  surface. 
These  lines  are  found  on  microscopic  examination  to 
be  galleries  beneath  the  mucous  membrane  which 
have  been  formed  by  the  worms  in  their  move- 
ments, and  in  which  these  worms  and  their  eggs  may  be 
readily  seen.  As  many  as  thirty  of  these  worms  have 
been  found  in  the  cesophagus  of  one  bird. 

The  action  of  this  parasite  is  believed  to  be  mechani- 
cal. In  boring  through  the  walls  of  the  oesophagus, 
the  tissues  are  weakened,  leading  to  imperfect  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscular  fibres.  The  food  collects  in  the 
cervical  dilatation,  the  contractions  of  the  walls  are  not 
suf^ciently  vigorous  to  force  it  onward,  and  dilation 
with   impaction     follows.     The   impacted   oesophagus 


114  DISICAST'.S    OF    POl'I.TRV. 

presses  iti)on  the  piieumojj:astric  nerve  and  may  pro- 
duce asphyxia.  The  disease  appears  to  be  confined  to 
young  Pekin  ducks.  The  symptoms  are  arrest  of 
growth,  emaciation  and  weakness  with  sometimes  epi- 
leptiform attacks.  In  about  five  to  ten  days  a  swell- 
ing at  the  lower  jiart  of  the  neck  is  ol)served  which 
rapidly  increases,  leading  to  death  in  one  or  two  days. 
Trk.vtment. —  Garlic  may  be  mixed  with  the  feed  as 
recommended  for  the  Syjigavms  trachealisox  gapeworra. 
Probablyone  of  the  best  remedies  is  essence  of  turpen- 
tine. It  may  be  mixed  with  twice  its  quantity'  of  olive 
oil  and  one  to  two  tablespoonfuls  given  for  a  dose. 

P.VRASITKS    OF    THE   INTKSTINKS  AND  PKRITOXKUM. 

The  following  list  comprises  the  parasitic  worms  of 
the  intestines  and  of  the  neighboring  parts.  It  is  given 
in  condensed  form  in  order  to  convey  a  clear  idea  of  the 
number  and  location  of  these  parasites  and  the  species  of 
birds  which  they  infest.  The  word  fowl  is  used  to  desig- 
nate the  common  barn -yard  fowl  {(ialliis  donicsticus) . 

TAPEWORMS   (CESTODA). 

Bothrioia-nia  longicollis.  Fowl;  ^  to  1  in.  long-;  Vein. 
wide  ;  intestine. 

Cotugnia  digonopora.  Fowl  ;  I'i  to  3  in.  long- ;  '  -,  in.  wide; 
small  intestine  and  c;c'ca. 

Davauica  cesticillus.  Fowl  ;  4  to  5  in.  long- ;  1-25  to  1-12  in. 
wide ;  intestine. 

Davainea  crassula.  Pig-eon  ;  8  to  16  in.  long- ;  ]i  in.  wide  ; 
intestine. 

Davainea  cchinoboilirida.  Fowl  ;  2  to  4  in.  long- ;  1-2S  to  Yc 
in.  wide;  intestine. 

Davainea proglotfina.  Fowl  ;  1-16  to  1-12  in.  long-;  1-50  in. 
wide  ;  intestine. 

Davainea  siruthionis.     Ostrich. 

Davainea  ietragona.  Fowl  ;  Yz  to  8  in.  long- ;  1-16  to  }s  in. 
wide  ;  intestine. 

Dicranoicsnia  coroniila.  Duck  ;  5  to  8  in.  long ;  1-15  to  's 
1.  wide;  intestine. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  115 

Dicranotccnia  sphcnoides.  Fowl;  l-i2  to  Jo  in.  luni,'- ;  1-2S 
in.  wide  ;  intestine. 

DrcpanidotcFtiia  anatina.  Duck  ;  8  tu  12  in.  Ion,!:,'-  ;  1-12  to  % 
in.  wide  ,  intestine. 

Drepanidotcsnic faciata.  Goose  ;  2  to  O'i  in.  long;  1-25  to 
1-12  in.  wide  ;  inte  ^tine. 

Drcpanidotcrnia  gracilis.  Duck  and  g-oose;  10  in.  long;  1-16 
to  1-12  in.  wide  ;  intestine. 

Drcpanidotcrnia  iyifundibuliformis.  Fowl  and  duck;  1  to  8 
in.  long;  1-25  to  1-12  in.  wide  ;  intestine. 

Drepanidotcenia  laticeolata.  Duck  and  goose ;  1  to  6  in. 
long  \  %  \.o  Yi  in.  wide ;  intestine. 

Drcpanidotcsnia  setigera.  Goose;  8  in.  long;  1-25  to  >s  in. 
wide  ;  intestine. 

Drepanidotcsnia  sinuosa.  Duck  and  goose  ■  2  to  7  in.  long; 
1-25  to  1-12  in.  wide;  intestine. 

Drcpanidofa-nia  tenuirostris.  Goose;  4  to  5  in.  long;  1-25 
to  Is  in.  wide;  intestine. 

Echinocotyle  Rosscteri.  Duck  ;  young  specimens  1-lb  in. 
long  ;  1-100  in.  wide  ;  intestine. 

Tccnia   cantaniatia.     Turkey  ;  Yz  in.  long  ;  intestine. 

Tcsnia   Delafondi.     Pigeon  ;  intestine. 

Tceiiia  exilis.  Fowl;  1  in. long;  1-25  to  1-12  in.  wide;  intestine. 

Tcenia   Krabbei.     Goose. 

Tccnia  malleus.  Fowl  and  duck  ;  Wz  to  8  in.  long-;  Jo  in. 
wide  ;  intestine. 

Tccnia  megalops.  Duck;  1-5  to  2  in.  long  ;  1-20  in.  wide  ; 
intestine. 

FLUKES  (TREMATODA). 

Cephalogonimus  ovatus.  "^  to  Yi  iii-  long;  1-12  to  Jfe  in. 
broad ;  fowls  and  geese  ;  bursa  of  Fabricius. 

Crossodcra  linearis.  Yz  in.  long;  1-16  in.  broad;  fowls; 
caeca  and  rectum. 

Echinostomum  echinatum.  Light  red  in  color  |6  to  >3  in. 
long,  1^  in.  broad  ;  fowls,  ducks  and  geese  ;  ca;ca  and  rectum. 

Mesogonimns  coviniiitatus.  Yi  !"•  long,  1-12  in.  broad  ; 
fowls  and  turkeys  ;  caica. 

Notocotyle  verriicosum.  Pink  in  color,  1-12  to  ]i  in.  long-; 
1-30  to  1-20  in.  broad  ;  fowls,  ducks  and  geese  ;  creca. 

ROUND  WORMS  (NEMATODA). 

Ascaris  crassa.     Male  'i  in.  long;  female   2  in.  long  ;    duck; 
intestine. 


116  DISEASKS    OF    POULTRY. 

/hh-rakis  coinprcssa.  M;ilo2  in.  Ioiil;;  female  3V  i"-  long"; 
fowl  ;  intestine. 

Ilitirakis  diffcrcns.  Sliff  htly  larj^'-er  than  papulosa  :  fowl ; 
posterior  portion  of  intestine. 

Hetcrakis  dispar.  Male  ,'2  to  -3  in.  long- :  fenale  -3  to  1 
in.  lonj,'' ;  g-oosc  ;  caeca. 

Hetcrakis  maculosa.  Male  %  to  1  in.  lony  :  female  1  to  1>^ 
in.  long-  ;  pig-eon  ;  intestine. 

Hetcrakis  papulosa.  Male  M  in.  long;  female  '2  in.  long; 
fowl,  turkey,  g-uinea  fowl,  g-oose,  and  peacock  ;  ca-ca. 

Hetcrakis  pcrspicillum.  Male  1  to  3  in.  long  ;  female  2U  to 
5  in.  long  ;  fowl  and  turkey  ;  small  intestine. 

Strongylus  tenuis.  Male  ,'4^  in.  long  ;  female  '•  in.  long; 
goose ;  intestine. 

Trichosoma  anatis.  Male  '2  in.  long;  female  1  in.  long  ; 
goose;  cfeca. 

Trichosoma  annulatum.  Male  73  in.  long;  female  3  in. 
long  ;  fowl ;  intestine. 

Trichosoma  collare.  Male  ,'3  in.  long;  female  '3  to  >2  in. 
long  ;  fowl ;  intestine. 

Trichosoma  longicolle.  Male  -3  to  1  in.  long  ;  female  3  in. 
long  ;  fowl ;  intestine. 

THORN-HEADED  WOKMS  { ACANTHOCEPHAI.A). 

EchinorhyyickusfiliLollis.  Male  '3  in.  long;  female  '2  to  l'/( 
in.  long  ;  duck  ;  intestine. 

Echiiiorhynchus  polymorphus.  ]b  to  1  in  long;  orange-red; 
duck  and  goose  ;  intestine. 

Echinorhynchus  sphccrocephalus.  '4  to  -3  in.  long:  duck; 
intestine. 

SYMPTOM.S. —  The  symptoms  which  indicate  the  ex- 
istence of  worms  in  the  intestines  are  not  ver}^  charac- 
teristic, Init  are  such  as  would  be  expected  from  ill- 
health  due  to  any  chronic  disease.  The  birds  become 
dull,  weak,  emaciated,  isolate  themselves,  are  indis- 
posed to  search  for  their  food,  are  stiff  in  their  walk, 
their  pluma<j:e  loses  its  brilliancy  and  becomes  rough, 
they  have  diarrhea  and  sometimes  epileptiform  attacks. 
In    certain   cases   the  symptoms  develop  rapidly  and 


i)Isi-;asks  of  pon.TKv. 


17 


birds  die  as  thou2:li  from  an 


acute  disease.  The  most 
certain  evidence  of 
the  nature  of  the 
trouble  is  the  discov- 
ery in  the  intestines  of 
large  numbers  of  one 
or  more  of  the  species 
of  worms  mentioned 
above,  upon  exami- 
nation of  birds  from 
the  flock  which  have 
died  or  which  have 
been  killed. 
According  to  Nessl, 
the  young  fowls 
which  harbor  numer- 
ous   tapeworms  lose 

/      their  appetite,  become 
^-■';f'\  '^\    emaciated,    dull    and 


feeble,  isolate  them- 
selves and  hold  the 
head  under  the  wing. 
Other  authorities 
have  observed  diar- 
rhea, sometimes  epi- 
leptiform attacks, 
stiffness  in  movement 
and  the  legs  strad- 
dling. The  only  cer- 
tain sign  is  the  pres- 
ence of  sections  of 
the  tapeworms  in  the 
excrement. 
An  enzootic  of  tse- 
niasis   (tapeworm  disease),   which    killed    30  out  of  a 


Fig.  25. — Drepanidotaenia  iiifundibuliforni- 
is.  <i,  worm  natural  size;  />,  an  inverted 
piece  of  chicken's  intestine  with  numerous 
tapeworms  attached. 


lis  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

flock  of  36  geese  on  one  farm,  was  reported  by  Lucet. 
These  birds  had  been  gathered  from  different 
l^laces,  were  about  two  months  old,  and  it  was 
supposed  they  had  acquired  the  germs  in  a  pool 
where  they  drank.  The  disease  was  at  first  ob- 
scure, and  was  manifested  by  arrest  of  growth,  ema- 
ciation, difficult  and  stumbling  walk,  a  yellow  and 
fetid  diarrhea,  and  plaintive  cries  emitted  from  time 
to  time.  The  appetite  remained  normal  until  nearly 
the  last — death  ensuing  in  five  to  seven  daj-s  after  the 
appearance  of  the  first  symptoms.  The  disease  was 
due  to  Drepanidotccnia  setigera.  The  number  in  each 
goose  was  always  high,  as  many  as  93  being  found. 
With  these  worms  were  also  found  3  or  4  of  the  Dre- 
pa  n  idotcen  ia  la  n  ccola  ta . 

Various  authors  have  reported  enzootics  due  to  the 
Hetcrakis  pcrspicillum  {Httcrakis  infiexa).  Meguin 
gives  the  symptoms  as  loss  of  appetite,  emaciation,  in- 
difference, somnolency  with  sudden  starts  of  wakeful- 
ness, and  diarrhea.  In  one  outbreak  about  thirty 
worms  were  found  in  each  fowl  that  had  died ;  in 
another,  pellets  of  the  worms  as  large  as  a  pigeon's 
egg  were  found  obstructing  the  duodenum. 

Lvicet  observed  verminous  enteritis  in  poultry -j'ards, 
due  to  the  association  of  various  species  of  worms. 
The  affection  made  slow  progress,  and  the  fowls  at- 
tacked preserved  their  appetite,  but  lost  condition  and 
became  dull  and  indifferent.  Later,  the  plumage  lostits 
lustre  and  became  erect;  while  the  wings  were  droop- 
ing and  the  movements  languid.  A  fetid  diarrhea  set 
in,  wasting  became  more  marked,  and  the  appetite  was 
diminished.  Soon  the  creatures  remained  immovable 
and  huddled  up,  with  their  eyes  half  closed;  the  comb 
and  mucous  membranes  lost  their  color;  the  tempera- 


DISKAS]':S    OF    POUI.TKV.  119 

ture  was  below  nonual ;  the  appetite  disappeared,  and 
the  feet  were  swollen.  These  fowls  often  yawned, 
and  their  torpor  and  ancemia  were  extreme;  death 
ensued  in  a  tranquil  manner 
in  the  course  of  one  or  two 
months.  On  postnwrton  ex- 
amination there  was  observed, 
in  addition  to  the  emaciation, 
the  lesions  of  a  chronic  diar- 
rheic  enteritis  and  the  follow - 
in<2:  parasitic  worms  :  Davainca 
p  roi^lot  Una,  Drepanidotcenia 
infiindibjiJiformis,  D avaine a 
ces/icillus,  Hcicrakis  papil- 
/  OS  a,  I/ctcKakis  perspicillum 
and  Irichosoina  coll  are.  The 
Davalnea  proglotti)ia  wa.5  the 
principal  cause  of  the  malady 
and  in  each  case  was  found  in 
thousands .  The  H  e  t  e  r  a  k  i  s 
papulosa  and  Hricrakis  per- 
spicillum were  less  constant, 
though  they  had  taken  a  good 
share  in  the  development  of  the 

disease.  Vw.  26.-  Notocotyle  verrucosum. 

The  Heterakis  maculosa  often  exists  in  enormous  num- 
bers in  the  intestines  of  pigeons  and  may  be  so  disas- 
trous in  their  effects  as  to  prevent  the  raising  of  these 
birds.  As  many  as  400  to  500  of  these  worms  may  be 
found  in  the  intestine  of  one  bird.  A  microscopic  ex- 
amination of  the  affected  laird's  excrement  reveals  in- 
numerable masses  of  the  ova  or  eggs  of  the  Heterakis. 
In  about  7  grams  (2  drams)    of  excrement  passed  by  a 


120  DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY. 

diseased  pigeon  in  twenty -four  hours,  Unterberger 
found  on  an  average  12,()t)U  of  these  eggs.  Some  of 
these  eggs  were  placed  on  damp  blotting  paper  in  a 
flask  and  their  evolution  studied.  The  embrj'os  were 
well  formed  in  about  17  days.  These  ova  were  then 
given  to  perfectly  healthy  pigeons,  when  they  were, 
in  about  three  weeks,  transformed  into  adult  worms. 
When,  on  the  other  hand,  healthy  pigeons  were  given 
theova  immediately  after  their  expulsion  with  the  faeces, 
or  their  discharge  from  the  oviducts,  they  did  not  de- 
velop, and  were  passed  with  the  excrements  intact  or 
slightly  digested.  The  evolution  of  the  ])arasite, 
therefore,  can  only  take  place  beyond  the  intestine, 
without  the  necessity,  however,  of  an  intermediate 
host.  Infestation  takes  place  from  pigeon  to  pigeon, 
through  the  medium  of  the  food  soiled  l)y  the  excre- 
ments of  the  diseased  birds. 

Treatment. —  Parasitic  infestation  of  the  digestive 
tract  should  be  guarded  against  by  hygienic  measures 
so  far  as  possible  One  of  the  most  important  of  these 
measures  is  to  move  the  fowls  upon  fresh  ground  every 
two  or  three  years,  or  certainly  in  all  cases  where  such 
parasites  are  frequently'  observed  in  the  intestines  of 
the  birds.  Another  practical  measure,  which  may  be 
adopted  at  the  same  time,  is  to  remove  the  excrement 
daily  from  the  houses  and  destroy  any  parasites  or 
their  eggs  which  may  be  in  it,  by  mixing  it  with  quick 
lime  or  saturating  it  with  a  ten-per-cent  solution  of 
sulphuric  acid.  The  acid  is  cheap,  but  requires  that 
great  care  be  taken  in  diluting  it,  owing  to  danger  of 
its  splashing  upon  the  clothing  and  flesh  and  causing 
severe  burns.  It  should  always  be  poured  slowly  into 
the  water  used  for  dilution,  but  on  no  account  should 


DISKASKS    OF    POUI.TKV.  121 

water  he  poured  into  the  acid  as  it  will  cause  explo- 
sions and  si)lashing. 

When  treating  diseased  birds  these  should  always  be 
isolated  and  confined,  and  their  droppings  should 
either  be  burned  or  treated  with  lime  or  sulphuric  acid 
as  just  recommended.  Without  these  hygienic  meas- 
ures, medical  treatment  can  only  be  partially  success- 
ful. 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  treating  tapeworms  in 
fowls  is  to  mix  in  the  feed  a  teaspoonful  of  powdered 
pomegranate  root  bark  for  every  fifty  head  of  birds.  In 
treating  a  few  birds  at  a  time  it  is  well  to  follow  this 
medicine  with  a  purgative  dose  of  castor  oil  (two  or 
three  teaspoonfuls).  According  to  Zurn,  powdered 
areca  nut  is  the  best  tapeworm  remedy  for  fowls,  but 
he  states  that  turkeys  are  unfavorably  affected  by  it. 
It  may  l^e  given  in  doses  of  30  to  45  grains  mixed  with 
butter  and  made  into  pills.'  Male  fern  is  also  a  very 
effectual  remedy  and  may  be  used  in  the  form  of  pow- 
der (dose  30  grains  to  1  dram)  or  of  liquid  extract 
(dose  15  to  30  drops) .  It  should  be  given  in  the  morn- 
ing and  evening,  before  feeding.  Oil  of  turpentine  is 
an  excellent  remedy  for  all  worms  which  inhabit  the 
digestive  canal.  It  may  be  given  in  the  dose  of  one  to 
three  teaspoonfuls,  and  is  best  administered  b}'  forcing  it 
through  a  small  flexible  catheter  that  has  been  oiled  and 
passed  through  the  mouth  and  oesophagus  to  the  crop. 
This  medicine  is  less  severe  in  its  effects  if  diluted  with 
an  equal  bulk  of  olive  oil,  but,  if  it  fails  to  destroy  the 
parasites  when  so  diluted,  it  may  be  given  pure.  The 
method  of  administering  medicine  by  depositing  it 
directly  in  the  crop  can  be  advantageously  used  with 
many  other  liquid  remedies,  and  should  be  adopted  in 
all  cases  where  it  is  important  to    have  the  full  dose  in 


122 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY. 


the  Stomach  in  a  short  time.  It 
does  away  with  the  uncertainty 
attending  the  giving  of  medicine 
in  the  feed  or  drinking  water,  and 
with  a  little  practice  is  more  ex- 
peditious than  making  and  giv- 
ing pills.  The  open  end  of  the 
catheter  may  be  inserted  into  a 
rubber  bulb  having  one  opening. 
Just  sufficient  air  should  be  ex- 
pelled from  the  bulb,  so  that  the 
dose  of  medicine  will  be  sucked 
up  without  being  followed  by 
much  air.  The  bird's  head  is 
then  brought  in  a  line  with  the 
neck,  which  is  extended,  the 
catheter  is  passed  carefully  to  the 
crop,  when  a  slight  pressure  on 
the  bulb  forces  out  the  medicine, 
and  the  instrument  is  withdrawn. 
The  operator  should  be  sure  that 
he  avoids  the  trachea. 

For  the  treatment  of  the  heter- 
akis,  Megnin  recommends  mix- 
ing santonin  with  the  food  given 
to  the  fowls.  The  powdered 
santonin  may  be  incorporated 
in  a  cake,  the  dose  being  7  or  8 
grains  for  each  bird.  An  efficient 
Fig.    n.-Echinoriiynchns  j-pmcdv   is  made   by   boiling  an 

po/ymorplitis,    male;    matini-  -^ 

'  ■  '       ounce  each  of  male  fern,    tansy 

and  savory  in  a  pint  of  water. 
The  resulting  liquid  is  mixed 
with  flour,  which  is  then  made 


'fied  20  diameters.  </,  probos 
cis;  <■,  nerve  gang-lion;  <•, 
suspensory  ligament;  ^  f, 
lemnisca;  g.g'  testicles;/',  /, 
deferent  canals;  X-,  prostate 
glands;  /,  seminal  reservoir; 
;«,  penis;  ;/,  caudal  pouch. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  123 

into  pills  and  administered  to  the  affected  birds. 
Lucet  has  successfully  treated  verminous  enteritis 
caused  by  tapeworms  and  the  heterakis,by  giving  in- 
termittent doses  of  calomel,  1  -6  to  '/3  of  a  grain,  and 
mixing  with  the  feed  the  heads  of  santonin,  artemisia 
vulgaris  and  wormwood. 

In  treating  heterakis  infestation  in  pigeons,  the 
healthy  should  be  separated  from  the  diseased;  the 
walls,  perches,  ceilings,  nests,  floors  and  feeding  and 
watering  vessels  must  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and 
frequently  disinfected;  the  grain  upon  which  they  are 
fed  should  not  be  scattered  over  the  ground  but  placed 
in  proper  receptacles  which  are  not  likely  to  be  con- 
taminated with  the  excrement.  It  is  well  to  mix  ani- 
seed, salt,  and  other  substances  appetizing  to  pigeons, 
and  also  coarsely  powdered  areca  nut,  with  the  grain. 
Each  diseased  pigeon  may  be  given  1-10  of  a  grain  of 
calomel  worked  up  with  soft  bread  or  made  into  pills 
with  butter  (Zurn).  Some  authors  recommend  feed- 
ing peas  which  have  been  macerated  for  several  hours 
in  a  cold  decoction  of  wormwood.  The  remedies 
which  have  been  used  for  heterakis  in  fowls  are  also 
applicable  to  pigeons. 

No  treatment  is  given  for  fowls  affected  with  trema- 
todes  or  flukes  as  these  parasites  so  far  as  is  known  do 
not  affect  the  health  of  the  birds  which  they  infest. 

THE    NODULAR  T.^NIASIS    OF  FOWLS. 

An  intestinal  disease  of  fowls,  characterized  by  nod- 
ules closely  resembling  tubercles  in  the  walls  of 
the  small  intestine  and  colon,  was  described  by 
Moore,  in  1895,  as  the  result  of  investigations  con- 
ducted for  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  On 
the   serous    surface    of    the    intestine    these    nodules 


124 


DisHASES  or   POn.TKV 


ww^ 

^..?^^^^ 


Fig-.  28.— i<7)  Piece  of  the  intestine  of  a  fowl  showing  the 
nodules  (reduced  one-third),  [fi)  The  mucosa  of  the  in- 
testine showing- ulcerated  areas;  also  several  small  and 
one  larger  tapeworm  attached  to  the  intestine  (reduced 
one-third),  (r)  A  cross-section  of  the  intestine  illustrating 
the  thickening  of  the  wall  due  to  a  large  number  of  the 
nodules:  also  a  portion  of  a  tapeworm  which  has  pene- 
trated the  mucous  membrane,  magnified. 


have  the  appearance  of  closely  set  protuberances,  some 
being  .so  small  that  the  elevation  caused  by  them  is 
scarcely  visible,  while  others  are  larger,  reaching  1-6 
inch  in  diameter.  The  larger  nodules  are  of  a  pale 
or  dark  yellowish  color,  while  the  smaller  ones  vary 
in  shade  from  this  to  the  neutral  gray  of  the  normal 
serous  membrane.  To  the  touch  they  give  the  sensa- 
tion of  small,  oval,  solid  bodies  in  the  wall  of  the  in- 
testine. The  mucous  surface  presents  similar  eleva- 
tions and  attached  to  this  over  the  elevations  a  number 
of  tapeworms  are  seen.  In  the  niv^re  advanced  cases  a 
variable  number  of  small  ulcerated  depressions,  1 -25 
inch  in  diameter  or  less,  are  seen  over  the  larger 
nodules  caused  by  sloughino^of  the  mucous  membrane. 


DISKASKS    Ol-    POULTRY. 


125 


The  larger  nodules  contain  a  greenish -yellow  necrot- 
ic substance.  The  contents  of  the  smaller  nodules  is 
more  purulent,  while  the  smallest  appear  simply  as  an 
area  of  infiltration.  Microscopic  examination  shows 
that  the  heads  of  the  tapeworms  have  penetrated  the 
mucous    membrane    and  ^ 

are  situated  in  different 
layers  of  the  intestinal 
wall.  They  are  fre- 
quently observed  be- 
tween the  villi.  The 
heads  are  not  readily 
detected  in  the  necrotic 
mass  contained  in  the 
larger  nodules  but  may 
almost  invariably  be 
seen  in  the  smaller  ones. 
In  some  cases  the  tape- 
worm can  be  traced 
through  the  mucous 
membrane  to  the  nodule 
in  the  muscular  coat  in 
which  its  head   appears.      „.      "^^■'''  "?''  ..       , 

I  i^r.  2'*.—  I'  A  cross  section  of  a  nodule 
The    worms    attached     to    contiiinins- a  sequestrum   situated  in  the 

outer  or  loofritudiiial  muscular  layer, 
the  mucous  mem])raneare     circular  layer  of  tUe  muscular  wall   not 

affected),  [h]  A  section  showinjf  a  tape- 
USUally  small,  but  larger    worm   and   a   necrotic   mass  within  the 

muscular  wall.  (<)  A  portion  of  a  cross- 
One.S  believed  to  be  of  the    section  of  the  intestine  showintr  the  head 

of  a  tarieworm  witliin  the  muscle  and  one 
same  species  are  found  lyin^  between  the  vilU  with  its  head 
_  resting  on   the  basement   membrane  of 

in      the      intestinal     con-    the  mucosa,  magnified. 

tents.  If  the  intestine  is  opened  and  the  mucous  sur- 
face carefully  washed  under  a  stream  of  water,  the  small 
worms  are  clearly  observed  hanging  from  the  mucous 
membrane.  The  nodules  are  most  numerous  in  the 
lowest  third  of  the  small  intestine,  but  are  occasionally 


126  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

found  in  small  numbers  in  both  the  duodenum  and 
colon.  The  laro^er  and  to  all  appearances  the  older 
nodules  are  found  in  the  ileum  near  the  cceca. 

The  only  symptom  noted  in  connection  with  this 
disease  is  emaciation  in  the  advanced  stages.  The 
affection  probably  can  only  be  recognized  by  a  post- 
viorteni  examination  of  the  affected  birds.  It  is  of 
particular  importance  that  the  principal  features  should 
be  known,  in  order  to  prevent  this  disease  being  con- 
founded with  tuberculosis. 

The  tapeworm  which  causes  this  malady  is  believed 
to  be  the  Uavainea  tetragona,  though  on  account  of  the 
unsettled  condition  of  the  classification  of  avian  tape- 
worms it  is  difficult  to  make  a  positive  determination 
of  the  species  at  this  time. 

No  experiments  have  yet  been  made  as  to  the  best 
treatment  for  this  form  of  taeniasis,  but  the  hygienic 
measures  and  medical  treatment  recommended  for 
tapeworms  in  general  are  applicable  to  this,  as  well  as 
to  other  species.  Vigorous  measures  should  be  insti- 
tuted as  soon  as  the  malady  is  recognized  or  all  of  the 
birds  running  together  will  soon  become  infested,  and  a 
long  time  will  be  required  to  eradicate  it  from  the  flock 
and  from  the  premises. 


UISHASES    OF    POULTRY.  127 


CHAPTER  V. 


Diseases  of  the  Peritoneum,  Liver,  and  Spleen. 


PEKITOXITIS,  INFLAMMATION  OK  THE  PERITONEUM — CHRONIC 
PERITONITIS,  ASCITES,  ABDOMINAL  DROPSY — DISEASES 
OF  THE  LIVER — CONGESTION  OF  THE  LIVER — INFLAMMA- 
TION OF  THE  LIVER,  HEPATITIS— ICTERUS,  JAUNDICE^ 
BILIARY  REPLETION — ATROPHY  OR  WASTING  OF  THE 
LIVER — FATTY  DEGENERATION  OF  THE  LIVER — FATTY 
LIVER — TUBERCULOSIS  OF  THE  LIVER,  SPLEEN  AND  PERI- 
TONEUM. 


PERITONITIS,    INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    PERITONEUM. 

/^fc^HE  peritoneum  is  the  delicate  serous  membrane 
/    \       which  lines   the  abdominal  cavitj'  and  covers 
^^i^  the  surface  of  the  organs  situated  in  that  cav- 
ity.    Inflammation  of  this  membrane   some- 
times occurs  as    a  result   of  the  extension  of  a  se- 
vere  inflammation  of  the   intestine,  liver  or   kidneys 
to    this    neighboring  tissue ;   or  from    perforation    of 
the    intestine    and    the    escape    of    a  portion  of  the 
intestinal      contents      into      the     abdominal     cavity, 
or  from    rui)ture    of   the    oviduct.     It  is   also  caus- 
ed b}-    injuries    or   bruises  of   the    abdominal    wall; 
and  by  the  irritation  due  to  ])arasites   in  the  abdomin- 
al cavity,  or  by  the  introduction  of  vSeptic  matter  in  the 
operation  of  caponizing. 

Symptoms. —  The  acute  cases  develop  rapidly  and 
with  much  intensity.  There  is  loss  of  appetite,  fever, 
restlessness,  and  painful  efforts  to  void  the  excrement. 
The  abdominal  walls  are  hot  and  painful  if  pressed 
upon,  the  birds  rapidly  lose  strength,  until  no  longer 


128  DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY. 

a])lc  to  Stand  and  there  are  convulsive  movements  of 
the  limbs  followed  by  death. 

On  o])eninj^  the  alxlominal  cavity  of  birds  which 
have  died  tlie  linini;:  membrane  is  found  to  be  deei)  red 
in  color,  and  is  sometimes  covered  by  an  exudate 
which  may  consist  of  a  tliin  transparent  fibrinous 
layer  or  it  may  be  thick,  yellowish  or  reddish -yellow 
and  opaque.  The  abdomen  may  contain  more  or  less 
liquid  which  may  be  transparent  or  it  may  be  turbid 
and  tinged  with  a  yellow,  or  reddish -yellow  color. 
If  the  trouble  is  due  to  perforation  of  the  intestine, 
this  licjuid  will  have  a  very  offensive  odor  from  the 
multiplication  of  putrefactive  germs.  If  it  has  re- 
sulted from  rupture  of  the  oviduct,  an  egg,  either  in- 
tact or  broken,  will  generally  be  found  in  the  abdom- 
inal cavity  and  the  ruptured  place  in  the  wall  of  the 
oviduct  is  easily  discovered. 

Treatment. —  Peritonitis  is  a  very  difficult  disease 
to  treat  and  it  is  only  in  the  milder  cases  that  success 
can  be  reasonably  expected.  The  affected  birds  must 
be  kept  quiet  and  protected  from  currents  of  air,  and 
opium  in  doses  of  one  grain  every  four  hours  is  recom- 
mended to  quiet  the  pain  and  reduce  the  movements 
of  the  intestine,  or  mix  3  or  4  drops  of  tincture  of 
aconite  in  half  a  glass  of  water  and  give  a  teasi)oonfuI 
three  or  four  times  a  day.  Injections  of  tepid  water 
are  indicated  to  counteract  constipation.  Flannels 
dipped  in  hot  water  should  be  squeezed  partly  dry 
and  applied  to  the  abdominal  wall,  renewing  them  as 
often  as  necessary  to  keep  uj)  a  moist  heat.  This 
treatment  should  be  continued  for  half  an  hour  to 
an  hour,  and  repeated  three  or  four  times  a  day,  dry- 
ing the  surface  well,  afterwards,  so  that  the  bird  will 
not  take  cold.      If  there  is    great  weakness  one  or  two 


i)isi-:asi-:s  oi'  I'on.TKw  l:!y 

clroi).s  of  ctiiL-r  or  four  or  five  (lro])s  of  liiu-lurc  of  cam - 
])h()r  may  be  injected  inuler  the  skin  as  a  stimulant. 
in  case  the  disease  is  due  to  rni)ture  of  the  oviduct 
or  perforation  of  the  intestine,  treatment  is  useless  ;  if 
it  has  foHowed  inflammation  of  the  intestine,  the 
treatment  for  enteritis  shouhl  l)e  combined  witli  that 
for  ])critonitis.  Peritonitis  from  cajjonizing  sliouhl  I'e 
guarded  against  by  sterilizing  the  instruments  and 
applying  a  germicide  (corrosive  sublimate  1  grain, 
water  4  ounces),  to  the  skin  before  l)eginning  th.e 
operation. 

CHRONIC  I'1;KIT0NITIS,   ASCITlvS,  ABDOMINAL  DKOPSV. 

IJciuid  in  the  abdominal  cavity  may  result  from  a 
mild  or  chronic  case  of  ])eritonitis,  and  it  is  said  by 
some  writers  to  be  due  to  aiuemia  in  young  birds,  and 
to  the  obstruction  of  the  vencnis  circulation  in  older 
ones.  The  condition  is  shown  ])y  the  enlargement  of 
the  abdomen  which  is  distended  until  it  nearly  or 
quite  reaches  the  ground  when  the  l)ird  is  standing. 
If  examined  by  slight  i^ressure  of  the  hand  the  swell- 
ing is  found  to  be  soft  and  fluctuating;  it  will  ^n'eld  in 
one  place  and  cause  a  greater  distension  at  another. 
That  is,  it  gives  the  sensation  of  a  sac  filled  with 
lifjuid. 

Fowls  affected  in  this  way  are  dull,  disinclined  to 
move,  generally  feeble,  with  ])ale  coml)  and  diminish- 
ed ai)petite. 

The  treatment  of  this  conditi(jn  is  not  i)rofitable, 
but,  in  si)ecial  cases,  stimulating  diet  with  consider- 
able animal  food,  tonics  and  diuretics,  may  be  tried. 
Iodide  of  ])otassium  or  iodide  of  iron  in  doses  of  1 
graiii  is  ])articularly  indicated. 

DISEASES    OK    THE    LlVI'.k. 

The   liver  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important 


l.'^O  niSKASl-S    OK    POULTRY. 

organs  in  the  bird's  body.  It  not  only  prepares  the 
bile,  which  is  one  of  the  principal  digestive  litiuids, 
l)Ut  it  assists  in  some  of  the  most  necessary  chemical 
changes  which  occnr  in  the  blood.  This  organ  con- 
tains numerous  Idood  vessels  through  which  ])asses  a 
very  large  (luantity  of  l)lood,  and  it  is  particularly 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  various  kinds  of  parasites. 
Most  of  these  parasites  probably  find  their  way  to  the 
liver  through  the  blood  channels,  lodge  in  the  minute 
capillary  vessels,  and  begin  tlicir  multiplication  and 
disease -i^roducing  action. 

Among  the  parasites  which  most  frequently  affect 
the  liver  of  fowls  are  the  chicken  cholera  bacteria,  the 
tubercle  bacillus,  the  protozoa  of  black-head  (tur- 
key's), and  the  aspergillosis  fungus.  These  variously 
cause  congestion,  inflammation,  and  death  of  the  tis- 
sue. 

The  liver  is  very  subject  to  congestion  and  this  fre- 
quently occurs  from  errors  in  feeding  and  as  a  result 
of  irritation  in  the  neighboring  intestines;  it  is,  also, 
frequently  affected  with  atrophy  and  fatty  degenera- 
tion. 

CONGKSTION    OF    THE    LIVKR. 

The  liver  of  fowls  is  often  found  in  a  congested  con- 
dition as  the  result  of  lack  of  exercise  combined  with 
over -feeding;  also  from  the  birds  taking  tainted  or 
moldy  food  or  poisonous  substances  of  various  kinds 
into  their  digestive  organs;  from  the  effects  of  infec- 
tious di.seases,  particularly  cholera  ;  and  from  obstruc- 
tion to  the  circulation  of  blood  by  disease  of  the  heart 
or  lungs.  It  is  often  .seen  in  l)irds  which  are  in  pleth  - 
oric  condition  or  very  fat. 

The  symptoms  are  obscure  and  it  is  difficult  to 
make  a  diagnosis  during  the  life  of  the   affected  bird. 


niSKASKS    Ol-     I'ori.TKV.  131 

The  postmortem  examination  reveals  a  greatly  enlarged 
liver  engorged  with  ])lood,  tender  and  easily  torn  or 
crushed. 

If  the  condition  is  sus])ected  in  time  for  treat- 
ment give  suljihate  of  magnesium  or  sul])hate  of 
sodium  in  a  i)urgative  dose  (20  grains  to  a  dram)  and 
follow  with  sulphate  of  magnesium  10  grains,  bicar- 
bonate of  sodium  I   grains,  repeated  daily  for  a  week. 

The  disease  should  l)e  prevented  1)y  proper  feeding, 
regular  exercise,  and  protection  from  parasites  and 
infectious  diseases. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    LIVER,    HEPATITIS. 

This  disease  is  due  to  the  causes  enumerated  as 
producing  congestion  of  the  liver  and  is  a  different 
and  more  advanced  stage  of    the  same  process. 

The  symptoms  are  loss  of  appetite,  sluggishness, 
tenderness  over  the  abdomen  and  sometimes  a  yellow- 
ish color  or  jaundice  of  the  skin. 

The  treatment  of  birds  so  affected  is  not  i^rofitable 
unless  they  are  verj'  valual^le  for  ])reeding  or  exhi])i- 
tion  purposes.  It  is  well  to  begin  with  1-i  to  1  grain 
of  calomel,  followed  with  20  grains  of  Epsom  salts  and 
2  grains  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  after  twelve  hours. 
Xaphthol  or  benzonaphthol  may  be  given  twice  a 
day  in  1  grain  doses  to  disinfect  the  intestinal  canal. 
If  the  diarrhea  is  excessive  and  weakens  the  bird, 
treat  as  recommended  for  that  disease. 

When  marked  improvement  is  shown,  give  green 
food,  tonics,  and  raw  l)eef,  and  allow  the  bird  free 
exercise  in  the  ojjen  air. 

ICTERUS,    JAUNDICE,    BILIARY    REPLETION. 

According  to  Megnin,  moderate  and  persistent  con- 
gestion of  the  liver,  whether  due  to  plethora  or  to  long 
continued  i:se  of   food  containing  a  large  proportion 


132  DISKASKS    OK    POri.TKV. 

of  starch  or  oil,  such  for  example  as  corn,  may  lead  to 
an  exaggeration  ot  the  functions  of  the  liver  charac- 
terized by  the  accumulation  of  a  large  quantity  of  bile 
in  the  gall  l)ladder,  or  in  the  gall  ducts  of  birds,  like 
ingeons,  which  have  no  gall  bladder.  The  bile  is  so 
al)undant  that  it  ])enetrates  the  adjoining  organs  by 
iml)ibition  and  colors  them  for  a  considerable  distance. 
In  some  cases  tlie  bile  is  thick,  dr\'  and  hard  like  a 
piece  of  black  soa]). 

In  these  cases  the  bile  distends  the  gall  bladder  and 
the  ducts,  sometimes  because  of  its  abundance,  at 
other  times  because  owing  to  its  thickness  it  does  not 
flow  freely  into  the  intestine,  and  in  still  other  cases 
l^ecause  the  caliber  of  the  duct  has  been  reduced  by 
inflammation.  In  all  of  these  cases  the  result  is  the 
same — the  bile  is  absorbed  Ijy  the  blood  vessels,  caus- 
es jaundice  and  poisoning,  which  soon  leads  to  the 
deatli  of  the  bird. 

Unfortunatel}',  the  nature  of  the  disease  is  only  oc- 
casionally suspected  before  death.  With  birds  having 
coml)s  and  wattles,  or  those  which  have  the  borders 
of  the  eyes  or  cheeks  free  from  feathers,  a  close  ob- 
server may  detect  the  yellowish  or  mahogany  color  of 
these  parts. 

When  this  S5'm])tom  is  observed,  or  when  upon posf- 
mortcm  examination  of  a  bird  the  distention  of  the 
biliary  reservoirs  is  made  out,  and  other  birds  are 
thought  to  l)e  similarlj^  affected,  Megnin  recommends 
purging  with  1-2  to  1  grain  of  aloes,  and  a  complete 
change  of  food  giving  as  great  a  variety  of  ingredients 
as  is  convenient. 

ATROPHY    OR    "WASTING    OF    Till':    I.IVER. 

The  wasting  or  shrinkage  of  the  liver,  known  tech- 
nically as  atrophy,  is  generall)'  associated  with  hard- 


disi-:asks  op  ron.TKv.  133 

eniui^^  and  sonieliines  with  a  marked  vlIIow  coloration. 
It  has  been  considered  by  sonic  authorities  as  due  to 
compression,  and  may  result  from  this  cause  wlicn 
there  is  a  great  accumulation  of  fat  in  the  abdominal 
cavity.  In  most  cases,  it  probably  results  from 
chronic  inflammation.  Some  excellent  authorities  re- 
gard it  as  caused  almost  entirely  by  infections  and  in- 
toxications. Nq  doulit  most  forms  of  irritation  which 
set  up  chronic  inflammation,  will  ])roduce  atrophy. 

In  this  disea.se  the  surface  of  the  liver  is  often  more 
or  less  granular,  the  small  centers  of  glandular  tissue 
being  shrunken,  undergoing  degeneration,  and  sur- 
rounded by  thickened  connective  tissue.  This  pro- 
cess is  accompanied  by  the  obliteration  of  old  vessels 
and  the  formation  of  new  ones,  there  is  even  a  forma- 
tion of  new  bile  ducts,  which,  however,  is  more  or 
less  incomplete  as  most  of  the  new  ducts  fail  to  per- 
form their  functions. 

The  symptoms  are  o1)Scure  and  the  disease  dififtcult 
to  recognize  during  the  life  of  the  bird.  There  is  .seen 
only  dullness,  drowsiness,  stui)or  and  ])ossibl3'  con- 
vulsions. 

This  disease  should  be  guarded  against  by  giving  a 
])roperly  balanced  ration,  being  particular  to  avoid  an 
excess  of  starch  or  fat.  Allow  plenty  of  exercise  with 
green  feed,  avoid  grain  or  meal  that  is  musty  or  moldy 
as  well  as  decomposing  food  of  any  kind. 

The  early  stages  of  atrophy  should  be  treated  with. 
calomel,  saline  ]nirgatives  and  alkaline  salts  as  re- 
commended for  hepatitis. 

FATTV  DEGENERATION  OK  THE  LIVER. 

This  is  a  rather  common  disease  of  birds,  and  has 
been  attributed  to  lack  of  variety  in  the  food,  too  close 
confinement  and  insufficient  exercise. 


I.i4  DI.SI'ASl'.S    oi'    roiI.TKY. 

On  posti)iorii-i)i  cxair.ir.aliou  the  liver  is  found 
shrunken,  hardened  and  marbled  or  spotted  with 
areas  of  grayish  or  yellowish  tissue.  A  microscopic 
examination  shows  the  liver  cells  to  contain  droplets 
of  fat  and  the  liver  tissue  degenerated  and  largely  re- 
placed by  yellow  fat  globules. 

As  the  disease  is  not  recognized  during  life,  treat- 
ment is  out  of  the  question.  If  a  number  of  cases  oc- 
cur in  tl.e  same  flock,  give  greater  variety  of  food  and 
a  run  on  grass.  In  addition,  l)icar1)onate  of  soda  may 
be  given  in  the  drinking  water  to  the  amount  of  one 
or  two  grains  a  day  for  each  l)ird. 

IWTTV  I.IVlvK. 

It  is  contended  by  authors  who  have  examined  into 
the  subject,  that  the  fatty  livers  which  are  so  skill- 
fully develojied  by  certain  feeders  of  geese  and  ducks, 
and  which  are  considered  a  great  table  delicacy  should 
not  be  confounded  witlr livers  which  have  undergone 
fatty  degeneration.  The  latter  is  a  disease  while  the 
former  is  simpl}^  a  physiological  condition.  In  fattj' 
degeneration  the  liver  is  shrunken,  there  is  a  formation 
of  fat  within  the  cells  and  destruction  of  the  cells, 
v.-hile  in  fatt}'  livers  the  fat  is  deposited  between  the 
microscopic  elements  of  the  liver,  and  this  organ  is 
thereby  enlarged  and  rendered  more  succulent  and 
delicate,  but  there  is  no  destruction  of  the  cells.  If 
the  process  of  fattening  is  proi)erly  carried  out  there 
is,  consequently,  no  disease. 

TUHICKCUT.OSIS     OK    THE      LIVKR,     SPLEEN     AND 
PEKITONICUM. 

This  disease  is  manifested  by  whitish  or  yellowish - 
white  nodules  and  aggregations  of  nodules  varying  in 
size  from  a  mere  point  to  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRV.  135 

These  develop  either  in  the  i)eritoneum  or  in  the  tissue 
of  the  liver  and  spleen.  Rupture  of  the  liver  with 
fatal  bleedin.^  is  said  to  be  sometimes  observed  in  cage 
birds  affected  with  tul^erculosis.  The  disease  is  of 
the  same  nature  as  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs,  and  is 
treated  at  length  in  another  chapter.  As  the  disease 
is  incurable,  no  treatment  is  recommended,  l^eyond  tliw 
sanitar}'  measures  for  the  eradication  of  the  contagion 
mentioned  in  the  general  article  upon  this  subject. 


136  DISEASKS    OI*    POULTRY. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


DiSKASKS  OK  THK  Ok(;ans  OF  Ukination  and  Rk 

PRODUCTION. 


KXIKK  DKSCKIPTION  OK  THE  ORGANS  OK  UKIXATION  — I'AK  KN - 
CHYMATOUS  NEPHRITIS,  INKLAMMATION  OK  THK  KID- 
NEYS— ABSCESS  OK  THE  KIDNEYS— OBSTRUCTION  OK  THE 
CLOACA  BY  URINARY  CONCRETIONS — THE  MALE  ORGANS 
OK  REPRODUCTION — HYPERTROPHY  OR  ENLARGEMENT  OK 
THE  TESTICLES— CANCER  OK  THE  TESTICLES — KATTY  DE- 
GENERATION—THE KEMALE  ORGANS  OK  REPRODUCTION — 
ATROPHY  OK  THE  OVARY— TUMORS  OK  THE  OVARY — 
GANGRENE  OK  THE  OVAKV— INKLAMMATION  OK  THE 
OVIDUCT — PROLAPSUS  OR  EVERSION  OK  THE  OVIDUCT— 
DIKKICULT  LAYING,  EGG  BOUND,  OBSTRUCTION  OK  THE 
OVIDUCT— GANGRENE  OK  THE  OVIDUCT — RUPTURE  OK 
THE  OVIDUCT- CLOACITIS,  VENT  GLEET— ANOMALIES  IN 
EGG  PRODUCTION — EGG  INCUBATED  IN  THE  OVIDUCT- 
PARASITES  IN  EGGS— SANGUINEOUS  EGGS — EGGS  WITH- 
OUT SHELLS— EGGS  WITH  TWO  YOLKS — INCOMPLETE  OK 
ABORTED  EGGS— EGGS  WITHIN  EGGS. 


3KIKK  DlvSCRIPTION    OF  THE    ORGANS    OF    URINATION. 

/^^^p'HE   urinary  apparatus  of  birds  consists  of  two 
/   \       kidneys  and  two  ureters.     There  is  no  bladder, 
^^i^  thecloaca  forming  a  common  receptacle  for  both 
urine  and  fieces.  The  kidneys  are  elongated  in 
form,  commencing  immediately  below  the  lungs  and 
extending  along  the  sides  of  the  spine  as  far  as  the  ter- 
mination of  the  rectum.    They  present  inequalities  of 
surface  corresponding  to  the  elevations  and  depressions 
of  the  walls  of  the  pelvis.  The  kidneys  of  birds  are  divid- 


nisEASi-:s  01-"  poi'ltky.  137 

e>l  into  three  quite  distinct  lobes,  each  lobe  connecting- 
will;  the  ureter.  The  texture  of  tlie  kidneys  is  much  more 
frail  than  in  mammalia,  readily  yielding;  under  the 
pressure  of  the  finger.  The  lobes  are  made  up  of  lob- 
ules having  somewhat  the  a])])earance  of  the  convolu  - 
tions  of  the  brain.  The  uriniferous  tu])es  do  not 
empty  into  a  cavity  or  pelvis  in  the  interior  of  tl:e 
kidney  as  with  mammals,  but  unite  ujion  the  surface 
of  the  gland  to  form  the  ureter. 

The  ureters  are  continued  along  the  surface  of  tlie 
kidney  towards  the  inner  side,  being  here  and  the:e 
imbedded  in  its  substance,  presenting  a  series  of  dila  - 
tations  corresponding  to  the  principal  lobes,  and  re- 
ceiving the  branches  of  the  uriniferous  tubes  as  they 
])ass  along.  Bej'ond  the  kidneys  the  ureters  pass  behind 
the  cloaca,  penetrate  its  walls,  and,  finallj^end  in  val- 
vular eminences  in  the  lower  part  of  the  cloaca. 
The  urine  as  secreted  is  very  thick  having  the  color  an. 1 
consistency  of  cream,  being  composed  almost  entirely 
of  uric  acid.  It  dries  to  a  chalky  paste  in  the  cloaca 
from  which  it  is  expelled  with  the  faeces.  The  excre- 
ment of  birds,  as  is  well  known,  is  composed  of  two 
distinct  portions,  one  white  and  the  other  of  variable 
color.  The  former  is  the  secretion  of  the  kidneys,  and 
the  latter  is  the  residue  of  alimentary  matters  which 
has  passed  through  the  intestines. 

PARENCHYMATOUS      NEPHRITIS,       INFLAMMATION      OF 
TinC    KIDNE.YS. 

A  case  of  this  disease  is  recorded  by  Megnin  as  hav- 
ing occurred  in  a  Langshan  pullet,  seven  months  old. 
The  symptoms  were  evident  suffering  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  kidneys.  The  bird  remained  continually  lying 
upon  its  abdomen,  only  occasionally  rising  with  diffi- 
culty in  order  to  eat.    Th.*t postmortem  examination  re- 


l.vS 


DISl'ASKS    OF    POri.TKV. 


Fip-.  30.— Urinarv  and  reproductive  orpans  of  the  hen;  a,  ovary;  />, 
infundibular  portion  of  oviduct:  r,  portion  of  oviduct  which  secretes 
the  aUiumeii;  <',  uti-rus  or  shell-forniinp  portion;  d,  intestine;  </',  cloaca; 
«"',<■'.  .ipeninjrof  ureti-rs;  r"openin(,'of  oviduct;  ('"depression  correspond- 
iny- to  opening  of  atrt)phied  oviduct;^,  bursa  of  Fabricius;/,/,  f,  kidney 
divided  into  three  lobes;  e,  right  ureter. 


DISEASES    OE    POULTRY. 


139 


vealed  au  enormous  eiilar.iremeiit   of  the  two  kidneys, 
and  upon  cutting-  across  these  organs  there  were  seen 

numerous  black  points, 
each  representing  a  small 
interstitial  hemorrhage. 
The  disease  has,  also 
lieen  observed  by  Larch  - 
er,  Semmer,  and  others. 
It  is  often  seen  with 
pullets.  The  affected 
])irds  stop  growing,  lose 
their  appetite,  become 
thin,  with  improperly 
developed  feathers  and 
roughened  plumage.  The 
kidne3'S  are  found  two 
or  three  times  their  nor- 
mal size,  of  a  grayish 
color  and  more  firm  than 
in  health.  Microscopic 
examination  has  reveal- 
ed the  existence  of  min- 
ute organisms,  and  Sem  - 
mer  thinks  that  the  dis- 
ease might  be  caused  by 
toxic  fungi  contained  in 

Fitf  31. -Reproductive  orpans  of  the    the  food. 
cock:  «,  </,  testicles;  />,  /',  epidid v mis;  (, 

/■.   vas  deferens:   cA  cloaca:    ii"  bursa  of    AESC1-:SS    0\'   Til]-;    KID- 
Fabricius;  £•',  t-',  papillne  throug-h  which 

the   vas  deferens    open;  y,   marg-in     of  NEVS. 

anifi. 

A  case  of  this  disease 
was  observed  by  Megnin  in  a  small  cage  bird.  The 
kidney  was  found  to  contain  a  yellow  nodule  formed 
b}'  dried  pus.  No  other  sign  of  disease  was  discover- 
ed.    The  bird  had  been   ill  for  a  month  but  coutin- 


140  DISKASES    OF    POULTRY. 

ucd  lo  cat.     No  information  could  be  obtained  as  to 
the  cause  of  the  disorder. 

t)B.'5TRl'CTION   OF  CLOACA    HV    IKINAKV  C(  )NC  K  I;T  IONS  . 

Numerous  instances  have  l)een  reported  of  partial 
or  comjilete  obstruction  of  the  cloaca  by  the  drying 
and  hardeniii!^  of  urinary  accumulations.  This  con- 
dition is  more  or  less  frequent  with  pigeons,  pheasants 
and  fowls.  The  concretions  are  usually  composed  of 
uric  acid  or  urate  of  ammonia,  Init  a  true  calculus 
made  u])  of  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  phos- 
phate of  lime  and  mucus  has  been  found  in  the  kidneys 
of  a  fowl. 

The  concretions  in  the  cloaca  are  usually  associated 
with  improper  rations,  containing  too  much  of  the 
nitrogenous  constituents.  The  feeding  should  be  cor- 
rected, animal  food  reduced,  and  a  cooling  non -stimu- 
lating ration  substituted.  The  contents  of  the  cloaca 
should  be  carefully  softened  with  warm  water  and  re- 
moved. A  small  quantity  of  oil  injected  daily  for  a 
week  will  prevent  further  accumulations  and  permit 
any  local  irritation  to  subside.  No  other  treatment 
is  required. 

THF:    MALE    ORGANS    OF    REPRODUCTION. 

The  male  organs  of  reproduction  in  fowls  consist  of 
two  testicles  situated  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  just  be- 
low the  anterior  parts  of  the  kidneys,  and  of  two  ducts 
called  the  vas  deferens  which  conduct  the  secretion  of 
the  testes  to  the  cloaca.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
cloaca  is  the  common  outlet  for  the  faeces,  the  urine 
and  the  seminal  fluid.  Each  vas  deferens  o])ens 
through  a  conical  papilla  in  the  posterior  wall  of  the 
cloaca.  The  papillae  are  surrounded  by  a  remark- 
able plexus  of  arteries  and  veins,  producing  erectile 
tissue,  which  makes  it  possible   to   bring  the  seminal 


DISEASES    OK    POULTRY. 


141 


1.  January. 

2.  ISIiddle  of  February. 


3.  Heyinning- of  March. 


4.  Latter  end  of  March. 


liquid  ill  contnct  with  the  everted  orifice  of  the  ovi- 
duct of  the  leinale.  In  .some  waterfowls  which  cojni- 
late  ill  water,  provision  is  made  for  a  more  ef^cient 
coitus  ])y  the  development  of  a  long  intromittent  org-an 
from  the  highly  vascular  wall  of  the  cloaca.  This  is 
seen  particularly  in  the 
drake.  In  the  passive 
state  this  organ  is  coiled 
up  like  a  screw  by  the  elas  - 
ticity  of  associated  liga- 
mentous structures. 
hvpI';ktkophv  or  en- 
l.\rg]-:mext  ok  the 
testicles. 
The  testicles  of  birds 
vary  greatly  in  size  ac- 
cording to  the  season  of 
the  3'ear  at  which  they  are 
observed.  In  winter  they 
are  very  small  with  a 
comparatively  insignifi- 
cant blood  supply,  but  in 
spring,  as  the  breeding 
se.ison  comes  on,  they  en - 

,  ,        ^  ,  .  Kiy.  32. — Testes  of  the  House-spar- 

large  to  five  or  ten  times  n.w. 

the     weight     during     the 

winter,  the  vessels  are  distended  with  blood  and  the 
height  of  functional  activity  is  reached.  The  an- 
nexed drawing  showing  the  enlargement  of  these  or- 
gans in  the  hou.se  sparrow  from  January  to  April, 
serves  as  an  illustration  of  this  j^rocess. 

While  the  enlargement  just  described  is  strictly  phy- 
siological, it  is  frequenth'  exaggerated  from  various 
conditions  and  then  becomes  a  disease.     Megnin  has 


5.  Middle  of  April. 


142  1)Isi:asi-s  of  pck-ltky. 

observed  cases  where  one  of  these  organs  was  nearly 
fifty  times  its  normal  weight;  and  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  them  two  inches  in  length  and  nearly  as  broad. 

Symptoms. —  Diseases  of  this  character  are  not 
easily  recognized  during  the  life  of  the  affected  bird.  As, 
however,  tlie  condition  is  generally  accompanied  b^' 
some  tenderness  and  pain,  there  is  uneasiness,  a  ten- 
dency to  sit  down  or  crouch,  or,  as  Hill  puts  it,  sink- 
ing down  and  rising  again,  with  inclination  to  remain 
quiet.  Such  symptoms  occurring  during  the  spring 
or  early  summer  should  lead  to  the  suspicion  that  the 
bird  is  affected  with  the  disease  under  consideration. 

Tre.\tmkxt. —  Give  cooling  food  with  consideralile 
green  material  in  it.  Do  not  allow  meat  or  condition 
powder  of  any  kind.  Keep  the  affected  bird  bj'  itself 
where  it  will  remain  quiet. 

Give  tincture  of  aconite  root  ^4  drop  to  1  drop,  ac- 
cording to  size  of  bird,  three  times  a  day.  It  is,  also, 
well  to  give  Epsom  salts  sufficient  to  obtain  free  move- 
ment of  the  bowels,  about  a  teaspoonful  for  an  ordi- 
nary sized  bird.  Some  recommend  iodide  of  potassium 
3  grains  twice  daily  in  a  pill  or  dissolved  in  a  little 
water. 

CANCKR>   OF    THE    THSTICLKS — FATTY  DEGENERATION. 

Cases  are  recorded  showing  that  cancer  of  the  testi- 
cles and  fatty  degeneration  of  these  organs  are  both 
common  with  birds.  These  conditions,  however,  can 
not  be  determined  until  after  the  death  of  the  bird  and 
treatment  is  for  that  reason  out  of  the  question.  The 
di.seases  mentioned  while  of  scientific  interest  need  not 
he  given  detailed  consideration  in  this  volume. 

THE  FEMALE  ORGANS  OF  REPRODUCTION. 

In  birds,  the  female  organs  of  reproduction  consist 
of   a  single  ovary  and  a  single  oviduct.      During  the 


DISEASES   or    Pon.TKV. 


143 


FifT.  33.  — R  pr.nl iiLlive  or^rans  of  the  lien;  a,  ovary;  ^,  oviduct;  <.  infun- 
dibular portion  of  oviduct;  d,  depression  correspondintr  to  airophicd 
ripht  oviduct;  <•,  openine  of  left  oviduct;/,  oviduct  laid  open  t.i  show 
i-L'tr  surrounded  with  first  lavers  of  albumen;  ^,  uterusopened  to  show  eL'g- 
with  shell  fi-rmintr  upon  it;  //,  cloaca;  X-,  rectum;  /.upper  portion  of  anus; 
at.  111,  opcuiii-rs  of  ureters. 


1  \-\  i)Isi:asi-:s  of  pori.TKV. 

early  stages  of  development  of  the  chick  the  two  ova- 
ries are  of  equal  size,  but  soon  the  developmental  forces 
appear  to  concentrate  in  the  left  ovary  while  the  right 
one  remains  stationarj-  and  ultimately  disappears  in 
most  birds.  The  single  ovary  is  develo])ed  to  a  re- 
markable degree.  It  is  situated  near  the  left  kidney 
and  approaches  the  median  lijie.  The  external  ap- 
pearance is  that  of  a  granular  or  nodular  body  attached 
to  the  spinal  column  by  a  fold  of  peritoneum.  The 
nodules  are  irregular  in  size,  some  small  and  whitish, 
others  larger  and  of  a  yellowish  color. 

The  enlargement  of  the  ovum  is  due  to  the  accumu- 
lation of  the  yellow  or  food  yolk,  and  this  causes  dis- 
tension of  the  ovarian  capsule  or  ca/yx  that  encloses 
the  ovum.  As  the  ovum  enlarges  its  capsule  becomes 
more  and  more  separated  from  the  remainder  of  the 
ovary  until  it  is  seen  to  be  attached  only  by  a  narrow 
base  or  pedicle.  The  calyx  consists  of  two  membranes 
united  by  connective  tissue  and  blood  vessels.  The 
vessels  converge  towards  a  white  transverse  line  or 
band  which  crosses  the  most  prominent  part  of  the 
calyx.  At  this  line  the  vessels  become  so  minute  as  to 
apparently  disappear  entirely.  This  band,  called  tb.e 
stifi;ma,  begins  to  appear  when  the  ova  are  well  devel- 
oped and  the  line  liecomes  broader  and  the  membranes 
thinner  as  the  ovum  increases  in  size,  until  at  the 
proper  time  the  walls  of  the  calyx  give  way  along  this 
line  and  the  egg  slijis  out  of  its  capsule  and  jiasses  into 
the  infundibular  opening  of  the  oviduct.  The  empty 
calyx  collapses,  rapidly  shrinks  and  is  ultimately  ab- 
sorbed . 

The  ovum  as  it  enters  the  oviduct  consists  of  a 
vitclliis  or  yolk  enclosed  in  a  very  thin  vitelline  viem- 
brane.     Impregnation    or    fertilization    occurs    in    the 


DISEASKS    OF    POULTRY. 


145 


Fig-.  34.  Fig.  35.  Figr.  36. 

Fig-.  34. — Egg  from  upper  part  of  oviduct  with  coating  of  dense  albumen 
called  raembrana  chalazifera  continued  into  the  chala'Zie.  Fig.  35.  — Out- 
stretched chalaz.e  from  opposite  sides  of  the  _volk  showing  opposite  turns 
of  the  spiral.  Fig.  3()  — Egg  from  above  middle  of  oviduct  with  tirst  la.vers 
of  soft  albumen. 

upper  portion  of  the  oviduct  and  soon  after  the  egg 
escapes  from  the  ovary.  Having  entered  the  oviduct 
the  ovum  is  propelled  with  a  rotary  motion  bj'  the 
peristaltic  contractions  of  that  tube,  towards  tlie 
cloaca.  The  contact  of  the  ovum  stimulates  the  lin- 
ing membrane  of  the  oviduct  to  secrete  first  a  dense 
laj-er  of  albumen  which  is  deposited  upon  the  vitelline 
membrane  and  is  continued  thread -like  from  each  pole. 
These  threads  or  filaments  are  the  chalazce  and  the 
dense  layer  of  albumen  with  which  they  are  connected 
is  the  mcvibraua  chalazifera.  As  the  egg  rotates  in 
the  oviduct  the  chalazce  become  twisted  in  opposite 
directions,  and  the  one  next  the  small  end  of  the  egg 
finally  adheres  more  or  less  to  the  membrane  lining 
the  shell  at  that  jioint. 


146 


PISKASl-S    OK    I'Ori.TRV 


The  e<^g  advaucc-s  into  the  more  glandular  and  vas- 
cular part  of  the  oviduct  and  here  two  otlier  layers  of 
albumen  are  secreted  and  deposited  upon  it.  Each  of 
these  is  thinner  and  more  watery  than  the  one  which 
preceded.  When  the  narrow  part  of  tl:e  oviduct  is 
reached,  two  denser  layers  of  albumen  are  excreted 
forming  the  mcmbrana  piilaininis.  Enclosed  in  this 
manner,  having  acquired  its  ovate  form  and  with  the 


Fig-.  37.— Section  of  fowl's  eg-g-;  «,  shell:/',  tnenibrana  putaminis;  i\r^ 
laversof  soft  albumen;  ./.  clialaziv;  <-,  cicatricula  and  },'erniinal  vesicle;/, 
air  chamber.  The  oulliiie  liirure  shows  the  yolk  made  up  of  layers  ue- 
posited  successively,  <',  cicatricula,  b,  g-erniinal  vesicle. 

small  end  towards  the  cloaca,  the  ^z%  enters  the  uter- 
ine or  shell -forming  dilatation.  The  inner  surface  of 
this  portion  of  the  oviduct  secretes  and  deposits 
upon  the  vievibrana  putaminis  a  thick  white  fluid 
which  condenses,  becomes  calcareous  and  forms 
the  shell.  The  time  required  for  the  ^gg  to  pass  from 
the  infundibulum  to  the  uterus,  in  the  common  fowl, 
is  said  to  be  from  four  to  six  hours,  and  it  may  remain 
here  from  twelve  to  twenty  liours. 

The  color  of  the  eg^g- shell   depends  upon  j^igmental 
matter  secreted  by  particular  follicles  of  tl:e  villous 


niSKASKS    OF    POl-I.TkV.  147 

membrane  of  the  uterus.  The  appearance  of  pores  on 
the  surface  of  the  shell  is  due  to  the  impressions  of 
the  villi  of  the  formative  membrane;  but  the  permea- 
bility of  the  shell  by  the  atmosphere  depends  upon  a 
more  minutely  porous  texture.  The  shell  consists  ingreat 
partof  carbonate  of  lime,  with  a  littlecarbonateof  mag- 
nesia and  phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia  (Owen). 

The  oviduct  is  a  whitish  tube  somewhat  larger  than 
the  large  intestine  and  shows  many  branching  blood 
vessels  upon  its  surface.  It  begins  near  the  ovary  by 
an  enlarged  portion  called  the  infundilnilum,  and 
after  being  bent  upon  itself  several  times  and  forming 
three  principal  convolutions,  it  reaches  the  cloaca  in 
which  it  opens.  In  the  non -breeding  season,  when 
the  parts  are  in  repose,  the  ovary  and  oviduct  are  re- 
duced in  size  and  almost  disappear. 

ATROPHY    OF    THE    OVARY. 

The  ovaries,  like  the  testicles  of  the  male,  are  great- 
ly' reduced  in  size  and  atrophied  during  the  non -breed- 
ing season.  This,  however,  is  a  physiological  atrophy 
and  not  a  disease.  In  the  same  manner,  the  ovaries 
become  atrophied  in  old  hens  which  have  ceased  laj^- 
ing.  This  is  sometimes,  but  not  always,  accompan- 
ied by  remarkable  changes  in  other  parts  of  the  body. 
The  spurs  develop,  the  feathers  become  longer  and 
more  brilliant,  reseml^ling those  of  the  cock,  or  usual- 
ly approaching  more  closely  to  the  plumage  of  the 
capon.  Such  birds,  also,  assume  to  a  certain  extent 
the  voice  and  habits  of  the  male. 

The  complete  atrophj-  of  the  ovaries  is  sometimes 
congenital,  or,  more  strictly  speaking,  these  organs 
fail  to  develop.  In  other  cases,  rudimeutar}^  organs 
of  both  sexes  are  found  in  the  same  individual.  Birds 
in  w'nich  this  condition  exists,   also,   have  a  resem- 


148  DISK  ASKS    OK    POri.TKV. 

blance  in  plumage,  voice,  spurs,  habits,  etc.,  to  ca- 
pons, and  should  l)e  fattened  and  killed  for  the  ta])le, 
as  they  are  of  no  value  for  other  purposes. 

TUMORS    OK    THK    OV.\KV. 

There  are  frequently  found  tumors  of  consideral)le 
size  in  connection  with  the  ovary.  A  common  variety 
is  composed  of  the  yolks  of  eggs  which  have  matured 
but  which  have  failed  to  enter  the  oviduct.  These 
tumors  are  yellow  in  color,  and  are  made  up  of 
concentric  laj-ers  in  which  the  j'olk  can  be  recognized, 
as  it  has  somewhat  the  appearance  seen  in  a  cooked 
egf:;.  Megnin  records  a  case  in  which  this  trouble 
appeared  to  be  hereditary- ,  as  all  the  hens  belonging  to  a 
particular  strain  were  affected. 

In  rare  instances,  the  development  of  the  ovum  is 
abnormal,  and  instead  of  a  mature  yolk  resulting,  the 
calyx  is  found  to  contain  only  a  thin  liquid,  and  the 
ovary  thus  becomes  transformed  into  a  mass  of  cystic 
tumors  suspended  upon  long  pedicles.  Cancerous  tu- 
mors of  the  ovary  have  also  been  observed. 

Treatment  is,  of  course,  impossible  in  these  cases  as 
the  nature  of  the  disease  is  not  determined  until  after 
the  bird's  death.  If  such  abnormal  conditions  are 
frequently  found,  it  is  an  indication  that  there  is  a 
predisposition  in  that  direction  in  the  strain  of  birds. 
The  only  way  to  correct  this  is  to  kill  off  the  flock  and 
obtain  different  blood. 

GANGRKNE    OK    THE    OVARY. 

This  disease  is  quite  common  with  all  varieties  of 
poultry.  On  examination  of  the  ovary  after  death, 
the  ova  are  found  in  different  stages  of  develoi^ment, 
but  instead  of  ])eing  3'ellowish-pink  in  color,  with  the 
blood  vessels  well  defined,  they  are  brown  or  black, 
easily  crushed  and  the  contents  broken  down    into  a 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY.  149 

putrid  liquid.  Death  is  caused  partly  by  peritonitis 
and  partly  h}-  the  absorption  of  the  products  of  de- 
•coni])osition. 

The  cau.se  of  this  trouble  is  not  well  understood. 
It  has  been  attributed  to  the  birds  being  too  fat,  thus 
compressing  the  ovary  and  hindering  the  evolution  of 
the  ova.  As  it  may  occur  in  birds  which  are  not  fat, 
anil  as  it  is  evidently  accompanied  by  the  penetration 
and  multiplication  of  bacteria,  it  is  possibly  an  in- 
fectious disease. 

INFL.VMMATION    OF    THK    OVIDUCT. 

The  oviduct,  being  a  highly  vascular  tube,  with 
great  functional  activity  during  the  laying  season,  and 
subject  to  injuries  of  various  kinds,  is  frequently  af- 
fected with  inflammation. 

Causation. —  Congestion  and  inflammation  may 
result  from  irritation  due  to  too  frequent  laying,  from 
the  eggs  being  too  large,  from  too  stimulating  food  or 
condiments,  from  the  breaking  of  an  egg  within  this 
tube  after  the  shell  has  been  formed  upon  it,  and 
from  obstruction  of  the  cloaca. 

Symptoms. —  The  bird  at  first  shows  indications  of 
a  desire  to  lay  without  being  able  to  produce  eggs,  or 
it  may  lay  eggs  containing  more  or  less  blood,  or  eggs 
without  shells,  or  small  and  misshapen  eggs  contain- 
ing albumen  but  no  yolk,  or,  finally,  the  yolk  may  be 
dropped  without  any  covering  of  albumen  or  shell. 
As  the  inflammation  increases  there  is  high  tempera- 
ture, straining,  and  an  effort  to  rub  the  abdomen  upon 
the  ground.  In  the  later  stages,  the  bird  becomes 
dull,  indisposed  to  move,  the  comb  is  pale,  the  plum- 
age rough  and  the  temperature  falls  to  normal  or  be- 
low. 

Tkkatmknt. —  This    disease    to  be  treated  success  - 


150  DISEASKS    or    POULTRY. 

fully  must  be  taken  in  hand  early.  Give  green  and 
cooling  food,  avoid  meat,  condition  powders,  pepper 
or  other  irritating  ingredients.  Keep  tlie  bird  quiet 
and  administer  Kpsom  salts  20  grains,  bicarbonate  of 
soda  2  grains.  Follow  this  with  one -half  drop  tinc- 
ture of  aconite  root  three  times  a  day. 

PROLAPSUS    OR    EVERSION    OF    THK    OVIDUCT. 

Prolapsus  of  the  oviduct  is  quite  frequently  observ- 
ed particularly  in  old  hens  whicn  have  been  great  la}'- 
ers.  Over-feeding,  too  stimulating  food,  constipation 
and  straining  to  expel  large  eggs  are  direct  causes. 
It  may,  also,  occur  as  the  result  of  inflammation  of 
the  oviduct,  or  from  any  condition  which  prevents 
the  passage  of  the  eggs. 

Sv.AiPTOMS. —  Prolai^sus  often  occurs  from  efforts  to 
expel  an  egg  which  has  become  arrested  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  oviduct  and  is  then  first  seen  as  the  hen 
leaves  the  nest.  It  may  be  either  complete  at  first,  or 
only  partial.  In  the  latter  case  a  tumor  ma}^  be  no- 
ticed as  just  visible  within  the  cloaca.  After  a  few  hours 
or  a  day,  the  eversion  continues  and  a  large  dark -red 
or  violet -colored  mass  protrudes  from  the  vent.  In- 
flammation becomes  intense  in  the  part  exposed  to 
the  air,  gangrene  may  set  in,  and  death  occurs  from 
purulent  absorption  or  septicaemia. 

Treatment. —  As  soon  as  symptoms  of  prolapsus 
are  seen,  catch  the  bird  and  examine  i'c  carefully  to 
determine  if  an  egg  has  been  arrested  in  the  passage. 
If  the  swelling  is  soft,  with  no  signs  of  the  presence  of 
an  egg,  apply  carbolized  oil  or  lard  and  return  the  part 
by  gentle  pressure.  After  this  is  accomplished,  treat 
the  bird  as  for  inflammation  of  the  oviduct,  giving  as 
additional  treatment  3  to  5  drops  fluid  extract  of  ergot 
to  cause  contraction  of  the  oviduct  and  keep  it  in  posi- 


DISKASrS    Ol-     Pori.TRY.  151 

tion.  If  an  egg  is  found  within  the  swelling  treat  as 
recommended  for  ol)struction  of  the  oviduct.  In  all 
cases  of  prolapsus,  the  oviduct  if  soiled  WMth  adhering 
manure  or  dirt  should  be  washed  clean  with  warm 
water  before  it  is  replaced.  Keep  the  bird  in  a  small 
coop  where  it  will  be  quiet  until  it  has  recovered. 

DIFFICULT     LAYING,     KGG     BOUXn,     OBSTRUCTION     OK 
THK    OVIDUCT. 

Laying  may  become  difficult  because  of  irritation  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  oviduct  arresting  the  secretion  of 
mucus  and  causing  the  mucous  membrane  to  ]:)ecome 
dry  and  lacking  in  its  normal  lubrication.  The  same 
trouble  results  from  birds  being  too  fat  or  from  the 
eggs  being  too  large,  and  is  aggravated  b}' constipa- 
tion. If  the  cause  is  sufhciently  pronounced  in  its  ac- 
tion, the  affected  bird  may  be  unable  to  expel  the  egg ; 
this  is  arrested  in  the  passage  where  it  sets  up  inflamma  - 
tion  and  leads  to  straining  and  possibly  to  prolapsus 
of  the  oviduct. 

Symptoms. —  When  fowls  are  e^g  bound  the\'  at 
first  go  frequently  to  the  nest,  making  efforts  to  lay 
but  are  unable  to  accomplish  this  function.  They  are 
restless  and  evidentl}'  in  more  or  less  distress.  Later 
they  become  dull,  with  rough  plumage  and  are  indis- 
posed to  move.  On  examining  the  bird  by  pressure 
of  the  finger  about  the  vent,  the  es^g  can  be  distin- 
guished as  a  hard  body  in  the  posterior  part  of  the 
abdominal  cavity.  In  case  of  prolapsus,  the  everted 
oviduct  may  be  easily  seen. 

Treatment. —  In  the  early  stages  when  the  irrita- 
tion is  slight,  it  is  sufficient  to  inject  a  small  quantity 
of  olive  oil  and  gently  manipulate  the  parts.  After- 
wards, give  cooling  food,  and,  if  hens  are  too  fat,  re- 
duce the  ration.     In  case  the  expulsion  of  the  egg  can 


\52  DISEASES    OE    POULTRY. 

not  l)e  oljlaiueU  \>y  Uic  injection  of  oil,  immerse  the 
vent  and  lower  part  of  the  bodj-  in  water,  as  warm  as 
can  be  used  without  injury,  and  hold  it  there  half  an 
l:our  or  more  until  the  ])arts  are  relaxed.  Then  inject 
oil  and  endeavor  to  assist  the  bird  by  careful  pressure 
and  manipulation,  or  by  dilation  of  the  passage.  Fluid 
extract  of  ergot  is  useful  in  these  cases  and  may  be 
given  in  five -drop  doses  three  times  a  day.  In  some 
cases  it  is  necessary  to  puncture  the  egg,  allow  the 
contents  to  escape,  crush  the  shell  and  remove  it  in 
pieces. 

GANGRENE    OF    THE    OVIDUCT. 

If  an  e°:;g  which  has  l)een  arrested  in  the  oviduct 
can  not  be  expelled,  the  inflammation  which  it  pro- 
duces becomes  more  and  more  intense  until  it  causes 
the  death  of  the  tissue.  When  the  flesh  dies  it  at  once 
begins  to  decompose  and  putrify,  and  this  condition  is 
known  as  gangrene.  The  gangrenous  walls  of  the 
oviduct  are  easily  torn  and  the  egg  may  then  escape 
into  the  abdominal  cavity.  No  treatment  is  of  use  in 
such  a  case  as  peritonitis  and  septic  infection  occur  and 
lead  to  death  in  a  comparatively  short  time. 

RUPTURE    OF    THE    OVIDUCT. 

The  walls  of  the  oviduct  are  sometimes  torn  or  rup  - 
tured  in  the  absence  of  inflammation  or  gangrene,  and 
simply  as  the  result  of  vigorous  contractions  in  the 
efforts  to  expel  an  abnormally  large  egg.  A  fissure 
thus  formed  permits  the  escape  of  the  egg  into  the  ab- 
dominal cavity.  This  accident  may  be  suspected  by 
the  suspension  of  laying  and  the  enlargement  of  the 
abdomen.  By  pressure  of  the  finger  one  or  more  eggs 
may  be  located  in  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen.  As 
treatment  is  unavailing,  the  better  plan  is  to  destroy 
the  bird  as  soon  as  the  condition  is  recognized. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  153 

CEOAciTis,  viCNT  gli-;i<:t. 

Fowls  are  sometimes  affected  with  a  contagious 
catarrh  of  the  cloaca,  which  is  transmitted  from  bird  to 
bird  daring  the  act  of  copulation.  The  inflammation 
is  usually  confined  to  the  cloaca,  but  in  severe  cases 
may  extend  to  the  mucous  meml)rane  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  oviduct,  or  even  to  that  of  the  rectum. 

Sv-MPTOMS. —  The  first  symptom  observed  is  the 
frequent  passage  of  excrement  which  is  voided  in  small 
cpiantities  almost  as  rapidly  as  it  reaches  the  cloaca. 
Often  the  bird  endeavors  to  drop  excrement  when  the 
cloaca  is  entirely  empty.  This  action  is  due  to  the 
tenderness  and  irritability  of  the  cloaca  which  gives  to 
the  bird  the  sensation  of  fullness,  and  produces  spas- 
modic contractions.  If  an  examination  is  made  the 
mucous  membrane  is  found  in  the  early  stages  to  be 
red,  dry,  swollen  and  hot.  In  a  day  or  two  a  discharge 
makes  its  appearance.  It  is,  at  first,  thin  and  watery, 
but  soon  becomes  white,  purulent,  and  offensive.  This 
discharge  collects  upon  the  skin  and  feathers  about  the 
vent,  obstructs  the  passage  and  irritates  the  parts  with 
which  it  comes  in  contact.  The  soiled  skin  becomes 
red  and  inflamed,  it  may  be  abraded  by  friction  or  by 
the  bird  picking  at  it,  and  thus  sores  or  ulcers  are 
started  which  may  become  quite  troublesome. 

Treatment. —  First  reduce  the  inflammation  and 
clean  the  parts  by  holding  the  lower  part  of  the  bird's 
body,  including  the  vent,  in  a  pan  or  l)ucket  of  warm 
watef,  in  which  has  been  dissolved  a  tablespoonful  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda  to  each  quart  of  water.  The 
water  should  be  as  warm  as  can  be  comfortably  borne 
by  the  hand  and  the  application  should  be  continued 
for  one -half  to  three-quarters  of  an  hour  and  should  be 
repeated  daily  while  the  inflammation  is  at  its  height. 


154  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

After  the  bird  is  removed  from  the  water,  it  should  be 
dried  off  with  a  cloth  and  a  tablespoonful  of  the  follow- 
ing mixture  injected  into  the  cloaca  :  Water  6  ounces, 
glycerine  2  ounces,  morphia  sulphate  1  grain,  boric  acid 
1  j/2  drams.  A  pledget  of  cotton  may  be  saturated  with 
this  mixture  and  ])laced  in  the  cloaca  two  or  three  times 
a  day,  allowing  it  to  remain  until  expelled  by  the  bird. 
If  the  discharge  is  very  offensive  a  solution  of  per- 
manganate of  potash  one  grain  to  the  ounce  of  water 
may  be  used  as  an  injection,  or,  if  more  convenient,  a 
solution  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  Should  the  rem- 
edies just  mentioned  fail  to  give  satisfactory  results, 
try  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  of  the  strength  of  one 
per  cent.  After  the  inflammation  has  subsided,  if  the 
discharge  continues,  an  astringent  solution  may  afford 
relief.  For  this  purpose  acetate  of  lead  4  grains  to  the 
ounce  of  water  is  suitable;  or,  in  obstinate  cases  ace- 
tate of  lead  3  grains,  sulphate  of  zinc  3  grains,  water 
one  ounce.  The  sores  and  ulcers  which  form  around 
the  vent  should  be  kept  dusted  with  iodoform  or 
aristol. 

ANOMALIES    IN    EGG    PRODUCTION. 

Kggs  are  not  always  laid  in  a  perfect  condition. 
They  may  l)e  deformed,  modified  in  composition, or  may 
contain  foreign  bodies.  These  changes  depend  upon 
.he  condition  of  the  ovary  and  oviduct  during  the  pe- 
riod the  e^g  is  develoi)ing.  Some  abnormal  eggs  have 
excited  much  wonder  and  discussion,  but,  if  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  egg  is  formed  is  borne  in  mind  there 
is  little  difficulty  in  making  a  satisfactory  explana- 
tion. 

EGG    INCUBATED    IN    THE    OVIDUCT. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  egg  normally  remains  in 
the  uterus  or  shell -forming  portion  of  the  oviduct  from 
twelve   to    twenty  hours,   also,   that  it  may    become 


DISKASHS    OF    POULTRY.  155 

lo-uged  at  this  point  and  be  held  there  for  an  indefinite 
time.  As  the  temperature  of  the  bird's  body  is  that 
most  suital)le  for  inculcation  and  for  the  develojjment 
of  the  embryo,  it  is  plain  that  a  fertile  egg  arrested  in 
the  oviduct  must  soon  undergo  important  changes. 
For  this  reason  some  eggs  have  the  odor  and  taste 
that  are  familiar  in  connection  with  stale  eggs,  al- 
though they  are  newly  lain.  In  rare  cases,  the  egg 
may  be  arrested  a  sufHcient  time  to  allow  the  embryo 
to  become  more  or  less  developed.  Megnin  states  that 
he  removed  an  egg  from  a  fowl,  in  making  a  pos/- 
morfem  examination,  which  contained  an  embryo  upon 
which  the  skin  and  feathers  were  already  formed. 
Fortunately  for  the  reputation  of  the  egg -producer, 
such  cases  seldom  occur,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  hen 
would  succeed  unaided  in  laying  an  egg  which  had 
been  retained  long  enough  to  allow  the  embr^-o  to 
develop.  Some  stale  eggs  may,  however,  l)e  account- 
ed for  by  prolonged  retention  in  the  oviduct. 

PARASITES    IN    EGGS. 

As  the  egg  traverses  the  greater  part  of  the  oviduct, 
and  receives  in  that  tube  several  layers  of  albumen  be- 
fore the  shell  is  formed,  it  is  not  difficult  to  under- 
stand how  any  parasites  which  gain  entrance  to  the 
oviduct  may  be  caught  in  the  albumen  and  imprisoned 
within  the  shell.  The  lower  part  of  the  oviduct  has  a 
free  opening  into  the  cloaca  for  the  pa.ssage  of  the  egg, 
and  it  is  not  surprising  that  parasites  occasionally  find 
their  way  along  this  channel.  The  parasite  most  fre- 
quently found  in  the  egg  is  the  Ccplialogonhmis  ovatus 
(Distoma  ovatum),  a  small  fluke  which  has  its  habitat 
in  the  bursa  of  Fabricius.  More  rarely,  the  common 
round  worm  known  as  the  Hctcrakis  perspicillum 
( Hcterakis  inflexa,  Ascaris  inflcxa)  is  observed. 
These  two  worms  evidently  pass  into  the  oviduct  from 


156  DISK  ASKS    OF    POULTRY. 

the  cloaca.  Various  fungi  and  bacteria  are  also  found 
in  eggs.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  chicken 
cholera  bacillus,  and  probably  the  bacilli  of  fowl  di])h  - 
theria  and  avian  tuberculosis.  These  facts  need  not 
influence  any  one  to  avoid  eggs  as  an  article  of  diet, 
since  all  of  these  parasites  are  destroyed  by  a  com- 
paratively low  temperature  and  cooking  would  remove 
any  danger  that  might  possibly  exist.  The  presence 
of  certain  micro-organisms  in  eggs  leads  to  early  de- 
composition. It  is  important,  for  the  production  of 
good  eggs,  that  cleanliness  and  sanitary  conditions  be 
enforced  in  every  poultry -yard. 

SANGUINKOUS    KGGS. 

Occasionally  small  bloodclots  are  found  in  eggs, 
usually  in  the  albumen.  These  result  from  a  .slight 
hemorrhage  which  has  generally  occurred  in  the  upper 
two -thirds  of  the  oviduct.  In  rare  cases  the  hemor- 
rhage may  have  taken  place  in  the  ovary  and  then  the 
l)lood  will  be  found  either  upon  the  surface  of  or  within 
the  yolk.  Such  hemorrhages  are  the  result  of  great 
functional  activity  and  congestion  of  the  blood  vessels 
of  the  reproductive  organs.  They  are  excited  by  any 
of  the  cau.ses  which  lead  to  congestion  and  inflamma- 
tion and  are  to  be  counteracted  by  green  feed,  less  ani- 
mal food,  and  suppression  of  condiments.  In  special 
cases  medium  doses  of  perchloride  of  iron  or  ergot  may 
be  found  useful. 

KGGS    WITHOUT    SHKLLS. 

The  production  of  eggs  without  shells,  or  the  so -call- 
ed soft -shell  eggs,  may  be  due  either  to  a  lack  of  shell - 
making  material  or  to  inflammation  of  the  shell -form- 
ing chamber  of  the  oviduct  which  no  longer  secretes 
calcareous  matter.  It  is,  also,  said  that  fright  may 
cause  the  premature  ex])ulsion  of  an  egg  before  the 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  157 

shell  has  ])eeii  deposited.  Eggs  without  shells  are 
more  difficult  to  lay  than  are  those  which  are  perfect, 
and,  hence,  they  are  frequently  retained  a  considerable 
time  in  the  uterus,  adding  to  the  irritation  and  inflam- 
mation. As  treatment  in  these  cases,  it  is  sufficient 
to  remove  the  cause.  Give  the  fowls  plenty  of  shell - 
forming  material  such  as  wheat  bran,  crushed  egg 
shells,  cut  or  calcined  bone,  broken  mortar,  crushed 
oyster  shells,  etc.  Give  green  food  and  avoid  the 
causes  of  inflammation  of  the  oviduct. 

EGGS    WITH    TWO    YOLKS. 

Eggs  are  frequently  found  in  which  there  are  two 
j^olks,  and  these  are  popularly  known  as  double - 
yolk  eggs.  They  are  the  result  of  two  ovarian  cap- 
sules becoming  ruptured  at  about  the  same  time,  and 
the  yolks  descending  the  oviduct  so  near  together  that 
both  are  included  in  the  same  shell.  Eggs  with  two 
yolks  are  generally  larger  than  others,  and  there  is 
more  danger  that  they  will  cause  injury  to  the  oviduct. 
Some  hens  are  habitual  layers  of  such  eggs.  If  incu- 
bated, double -yolk  eggs  generally  produce  twins, 
double  chicks,  or  monsters.  All  such  abnormalities  are 
not  developed  from  these  eggs,  however,  as  it  has  been 
shown  by  Davaine  that  a  single  yolk  may  contain  two 
germs  and  give  birth  to  two  embryos  united  in  some 
part  of  the  body. 

INCOMPLETE  OR  ABORTED  EGGS. 

It  is  common  for  hens  to  drop  eggs  of  only  half  or  a 
third  the  diameter  of  those  usually  produced.  These 
diminutive  productions,  often  about  the  size  of  a 
pigeon's  egg,  are  provided  with  a  shell  sometimes  more 
dense  than  that  of  the  normal  egg.  On  examination 
they  are  found  to  contain  albumen  ])ut  no  yolk.  In 
some  cases  they  contain   little   l)Ul    the    albumenous 


15s  DISKASKS    OF    POULTKY. 

membranes    twisted   so   ti.uhtly    that   they   have  been 
taken  for  worms. 

The  production  of  these  incomplete  eggs  is  an  evi- 
dence of  irritation  in  the  central  portion  of  the  oviduct. 
It  shows  that  the  albumen  is  secreted  without  the 
normal  stimulous  that  is  given  by  the  presence  of  a 
yolk,  and  passing  down  the  tube  to  the  uterus  is  there 
covered  with  a  shell.  The  hen  laying  such  eggs 
should  be  removed  from  the  flock,  kept  quiet  and 
treated  as  recommended  for  inflammation  of  the  ovi - 
duct. 

KGGS    WITHIN    KGGS. 

This  anomaly,  which  has  been  a  matter  of  record 
for  something  like  two  hundred  yearn,  is  closely  re- 
lated to  the  one  just  considered,  and  is  of  not  unfre- 
quent  occurrence.  The  inclosed  egg  is  a  small  one, 
with  a  shell  and  contains  only  albumen.  Its  produc- 
tion is  easily  explained.  On  account  of  irritation  of 
the  central  portion  of  the  oviduct,  albumen  is  secreted 
without  the  presence  of  a  yolk;  this  albumen  is  press- 
ed by  the  contractions  of  the  tube  downwards  to  the 
uterus  where  a  shell  is  deposited  upon  it.  In  the  ef- 
fort to  expel  this  small  egg  irregular  contractions  are 
induced  which  force  it  upwards  for  a  certain  distance 
where  it  meets  a  yolk  surrounded  wath  albumen,  or  a 
second  mass  of  albumen  without  a  yolk,  becomes  im- 
bedded in  this  soft  albumen  and  a  membrane  and  shell 
are  formed  around  the  whole.  The  compound  egg  thus 
formed  is  usually  of  normal  size.  These  abnormalities 
which  have  excited  much  wonder  in  persons  ignorant 
of  the  physiology  of  egg  production,  are  in  reality  very 
easily  understood,  and  the  experienced  poultry  man 
will  draw  the  conclusion  from  their  frequent  repetition 
tha.his  flock  isbeingforced  beyond  the  limit  of  safety. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  159 


CHAPTICR   VII. 


Dis]:asi:s  of  thI';  Bkain. 


Cl-:KF.BK.\t.  HYPKK^KMI.\,  CONGESTION  OF  THE  BKAIN,  VERTK.O- 
HHMOKKHAGE  OF  THE  BKAIN,  APOPLEXY — EPILEPSY. 


C]:kki;kal  nYPKK>i<:Mi.\,  congI'STiox  of  thf:  hrain, 

VKRTIGO. 

y^%  OXGESTION  of  the  brain  i.s  a  disease  quite 
i  \  frequently  seen  with  poultry.  It  may  occur 
^^ik  in  fat  and  plethoric  birds  by  fright  or  indiges- 
tion. It  is  frequently  associated  with  irrita- 
tion of  the  intestines  by  parasitic  worms.  It  is  seen 
particular!}' in  male  birds  during  the  breeding  season 
and  in  chickens  exposed  to  the  liot  rays  of  the  sun.  It 
may,  also,  occur  as  the  result  of  blows  upon  the  head 
and  as  a  complication  with  infectious  diseases  such  as 
cholera. 

The  syvtptovis  are  giddiness  which  leads  the  bird  to 
throw  its  head  upwards  and  backwards  or  to  bend  the 
neck  to  one  side.  The  gait  is  staggering  and  uncer- 
tain, the  bird  walking  backwards,  sidewise  or  in  a  cir- 
t  le.  Sometimes  irregular  and  unusual  movements  are 
made,  or  the  bird  falls  to  the  ground  fluttering  and 
making  convulsive  movements  with  the  legs,  or  may 
lie  for  some  miiiutes  powerless  to  move.  In  some 
cases  there  are  epileptiform  spasms  which  may  often 
be  stopped  by  a  touch,  in  other  cases  there  is  great 
stupefaction  and  drowsiness. 


160  DISKASF.S    or    POl'LTRY. 

As  treafmoit  apply  cold  water  or  ice  to  the  head  and 
hold  it  in  position  until  the  head  is  thoroughly  cooled. 
Give  internally  30  grains  of  Epsom  salts,  or  one  and 
one -half  grains  of  calomel,  or  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
castor  oil.  Keep  the  affected  bird  in  a  quiet,  cool, 
and  shady  place.  If  there  is  not  entire  recovery  under 
this  treatment,  try  bromide  of  potassium  one  to  five 
grains  three  times  a  da}'  dissolved  in  a  tablespoonful 
of  water.  In  case  of  intestinal  parasites  endeavor  to 
dislodge  these  with  appropriate  remedies. 

HHISIOKKHAC'.K    OF    THE    BK.MN,    APOPLKXY. 

Apoplexy  is  the  result  of  a  rupture  of  one  of  the 
blood  vessels  of  the  brain  and  pressure  from  the 
escaped  blood.  Such  accidents  are  attributed  to 
stimulating  food,  to  overfeeding  and  mechanical  injur- 
ies, to  violent  exertion  and  to  straining  in  laying  eggs 
(hens  being  sometimes  found  dead  on  the  nest  from 
this  cause). 

There  are  no  premonitory  symptoms  in  this  disease. 
The  bird  is  attacked  suddenly,  falls  nearly  or  quite  in- 
sensible, or  dies  upon  the  nest. 

In  most  cases,  treatment  is  impossible  as  the  bird 
dies  before  it  can  be  administered.  In  mild  attacks  the 
treatment  should  be  the  same  as  recommended  for 
congestion  of  the  brain.  As  preventive  measures, 
regulate  the  rations  and  give  plenty  of  exercise. 

EPILEPSY. 

Epilepsy  is  a  disea.se  characterized  by  convulsive 
attacks  with  loss  of  consciousness,  which  occur  from 
time  to  time  and  are  popularly  known  as  fits.  It  is 
sometimes  caused  by  pressure  upon  the  brain  (tumors ) , 
sometimes  by  intestinal  parasites,  and  often  no  ap- 
parent cause  can  be  discovered. 

When  attacked  the  bird  falls  to  the  ground,  the  legs 


DISlvASKS    OF    POULTRY.  161 

and  wings  are  moved  convulsively,  it  ma^'lie  upon  the 
back  or  abdomen,  with  the  legs  spread,  the  head 
thrown  back,  the  bill  and  eyelids  opening  and  closing 
alternately,  and  the  eyel^all  turned  backwards.  After 
a  time,  the  attack  subsides  and  the  bird  resumes  its 
usual  appearance. 

Treatment  is  not  very  successful  unless  it  is  found 
that  the  trouble  is  due  to  intestinal  worms.  Other- 
wise, unless  the  bird  is  very  valuable  for  show  pur- 
poses, it  is  better  that  it  should  be  destroyed  when  the 
symptoms  of  epilepsy  are  first  observed.  Some  re- 
commend bromide  of  potash  3  to  5  grains  two  or  three 
times  a  day. 


162  IHSKASKS    OF    POri.TkV 


ciiapti-:r  viit. 

I)is];asi-:s  oi-  thI':  Heart  and  Blood  \'kss):ls. 


I'KKICAKUrriS.  INM.AMMATIOX  OH  THK  PP:KICAK  DITM,  DKOPSV 
OF  THK  HKAKT  SAC — ENDOCAKDITIS,  IXFI.AMMATIOX  OI- 
THE  INTEKXAI.  MEMBKAXE  OK  THE  HEART — HVI'EK- 
TKOPHY  OF  THE  HEART — RUPTURE  OF  THE  HEART  AXl) 
LARGE  BLOOD  VESSELS. 


pp:KiCAKDi'ri.s,     ini-lammation    of    th]-:   pickicar- 

DHM,    DKOPSV    OF    THK    HEART    SAC. 

/^^^HIS  disease  is  quite  common  with  poultr}',  and 
i    \         is  often  found  associated  with  inflammation 
^^If      of  the  linino:  membrane  of  the  heart,  with  en- 
largement of  the  heart,   with  inflammation  of 
the  lungs  and  air  sacs,  and  with  soreness  of  the  joints. 
Cadeac  and  Megnin  are  of  the  opinion  on  account  of 
the  coexistence  of  these  different  troubles  that  the  peri- 
carditis of  birds  is  often  of  a  rheumatic  nature. 

Symptoms. —  There  is  great  weakness,  difficult 
breathing,  the  head  being  thrown  backwards,  and  the 
breath  drawn  through  the  mouth  in  order  to  obtain 
sufficient  air.  If  forced  to  run  the  bird  soon  falls. 
In  a  case  observed  by  Hill  there  was  tumultuous  ac- 
tion of  the  heart  and  occasional  spasms. 

Examination  after  death  shows  the  pericardium  or 
heart  sac  distended  with  a  considerable  quantity  of 
liquid  which  has  been  thrown  out  as  a  consequence 
of  the  inflammation.     There  are,  also,    in  many  cases 


DisKASKs  oi'   pori/rkv.  163 

thick  false  membranes  adherent  to  both  the  heart  and 
pericardium  and  sometimes  uniting  the  two. 

Treatment. —  The  disease  is  usually  not  recogniz- 
ed in  a  bird  until  it  is  examined  after  death.  If  there 
are  repeated  cases  in  the  same  flock  it  is  an  indication 
of  exposure  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  or  to 
extreme  cold  and  dampness,  and  these  conditions 
should  be  removed.  Give  two  to  four  grains  of  bi- 
carbonate of  soda  to  each  bird  daily  in  the  drinking 
water. 

ENDOCARDITIS,     INI'LAM M ATION     OP    THE     INTERNAL 
MEMBRANE    OF    THE    HEART. 

The  delicate  membrane  lining  the  interior  of  the 
auricles  and  ventricles  is  subject  to  inflammation  as 
well  as  the  pericardium,  but  much  less  frequently. 
The  symptoms  are  not  to  l)e  distinguished  in  fowls 
from  those  of  pericarditis.  On  examination  after 
death  the  internal  surface  of  the  heart  is  found  redden- 
ed and  deposits  of  coagulated  lymph  adhering  to  it. 
What  has  l)een  said  as  to  the  cause  and  treatment  of 
pericarditis  in  fowls  applies  equally  to  this  disease. 

HVPEKTROPHY    OF    THE    HEART. 

Hypertrophy  or  enlargement  of  the  heart  has  been 
sometimes  seen  in  fowls  and  particularly  in  pigeons. 
It  appears  to  be  partly  due  to  the  great  timidity  of 
pigeons  with  which  the  least  fright  is  sufficient  to 
cause  palpitations. 

Symptoms. —  The  symptoms  of  hypertrophy  are 
violent  beating  of  the  heart  which  is  sometimes  so 
extreme  as  to  cause  rupture  of  blood  vessels  and  the 
escape  of  blood  from  several  points  on  the  body  at  the 
same  time.  Hyi)ertrophy  affects  most  frequently  the 
walls  and  valves  of  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
(Cadeac). 


164  DISEASES    OF    POUI.TKV. 

KUPTUKH    CK    TIIK      HICAKT     AND     I.AKC.K     BLOOD    VHS- 

SI'.LS. 

Rupture  of  the  heart  or  large  vessels  accompanied 
by  fatal  hemorrhage  appears  to  be  quite  common  with 
birds.  The  cause  is  over  exertion  in  trying  to  escape 
when  being  chased,  or  it  may  be  due  .to  compression 
of  small  birds  in  the  hands,  or  to  other  injuries.  It 
is  most  common  in  full  blooded  or  plethoric  individuals. 
Cadeac  has  noted  its  occurrence  twice  with  birds  af- 
fected with  diphtheria.  This  accident  results  in 
speedy  death,  and  can  neither  be  foreseen  nor  treated. 
Megnin  recommends  that  parrots,  on  account  of  being 
predisposed  to  this  trouble,  should  constantly  be  given, 
for  drink,  water  which  has  been  made  alkaline  with 
bicarbonate  of  soda. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  165 


CHAPTER   IX. 


Parasites  and  Diseases  of  the  Skin. 


THE  EPIZOA  OR  PAKA.SITES  LIVING  UPON  THp:  EXTERNAL  .SUR- 
EACE  OF  THE  BODY — .SCABIES  OR  MANGE  OF  THE  BODY — 
SCABIES  C.A.USED  BY  EPIDERMOPTES— SC.\BIES  CAUSED  BY 
SARCOPTES,  DEPLUMING  SCABIES — F.WUS^CHICKEN  POX, 
SORE  HEAD,  PIGEON  POX. 


© 


THE    EPIZOA    OR     PARASITES     LIVING    UPON    THE    EX- 
TERNAL   SURF.\CE   OP   THE    BODY. 

I' R  domesticated  ])irds  are  liable  to  be  infested 
with  a  considerable  number  of  species  of  ex- 
ternal parasites.  These  parasites  living  upon 
the  surface  of  the  body  are  grouped  as  epizoa. 
Space  will  not  permit  a  detailed  description  of  the 
various  species,  but  the  following  list  gives  the  scien- 
tific name,  the  popular  name,  when  possible,  and  the 
kind  of  bird  infested  : 

Group  I.     epi/.oa  which  suck  blood  or  gnaw  the  flesh. 
Pule X  avium.     The  bird   flea.     Fowls,  pij^eons,  and  luany 
other  birds. 

Acanthia  columbaria.    Dove-cote  buLj.     Fowls  and  pig-eons. 

Dermcsies  lavdarius     1      L,arva;        1 
Tencbriomolitor  j^         ^j  ',      Youu- pi-eons. 

Nfcvophorus  I  Various  |  Coieoptera   i 
Silp/ia  ^  species,  j  J 

Aygas  reflexus.     Pigeon  tick.     Pigeons. 
Lcplus  autumnalis.     Harvest  bug.     Fowls. 
Dermauyssus  gallincr.     Red  mite.     Poultry,   pigeons,  and 
house  birds. 


166  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

CIroup  II.     EPizoA  wmcii  CAV'Si:  scahiks  ok   mant.e. 
Epidcrnwptes  bi/urcatiis.     Fowls. 
Kpidermoptcs  bilobattis.     Fowls. 
Sarcoples  Icrvis,  var.  gallincc.     Scab  mite.     Fowls. 
Sarcoptes  Icevis,  var.  colnmbcr.     Scab  mite.     Pigeons. 
Sarcoptes     miilans.     L/eg     scabies     mite.     Fowls,     Guinea 
fowls,  turkeys,  atid  cage  birds. 

Group  hi.     kpizoa  which  i.ivr   in  thk  coxxkctivk  tissue 
ok  air  sacs. 

Cvfodites  7iudits.     Air  sac  mite.     Fowls. 

Harpir/iynchus  nidulayis.  Connective  tissue  mite.   Pigeons. 

Laininosioptes  cysticola.     Connective  tissue  mite.     Fowls. 

Falciger  rostratus.     Pigeons. 
Group  iv.     epizoa    which     live    upox    or    within     the 
feathers,  or  upon  the  skin,  some  beino  inof- 
fensive   while    others    injurh    the 
plumage  or  cause  itchinc;. 

Goniodes  dissimilis.     Louse.     Fowls. 

Goniodes  stylifer.     L/Ouse.     Guinea  fowls  and  turkeys. 

Goniodes  falcicornis     Louse.     Peacocks. 

Goniodes  minor.     Louse.     Pigeons. 

Goniodes  iiniiiidianus.     Louse.     Guinea  fowls. 

Goniodes  parviccps.     Louse.     Peacocks. 

Goniocotes  gigas.     Louse.     Fowls. 

Goniocotes  hologasfer.     Louse.     Fowls. 

Goniocotes     redangulatiis.      Louse.      Guinea      fowls     and 
peacocks. 

Lipeurus  anatis.     Louse.     Ducks. 

Lipeiirus  anseris.     Louse.     Geese. 

Lipeurus  caponis.     Louse.     Fowls  and  Guinea  fovrls. 

Lipeurus  columbcB.     Louse.     Pigeons. 

Lipeurus  crassicornis.     Louse.     Geese. 

Lipeurus  heterographus.     Louse.     Fowls. 

Lipeurus  numidce.     Louse.     Guinea  fowls. 

Lipeurus  meleagridis.     Louse.     Turkeys. 

Menopon  biseriatum.     Louse.     Fowls  and  Turkeys. 

Menopon  latum.     Louse.     Pigeons. 

Menopon  numidcB.     Louse.     Guinea  fowls. 

Menopon  pallidum.     Louse.     Fowls. 


i)isi':.\.si"s  oi"  pori.TKv.  167 

Mfiiopoii  plurosto)intm.     Ljoiisc.     Peacocks. 
Doiop/iorus  icf erodes.     Louse.     Ducks  aiul  yeese. 

Tritiolon  arise/ is.     L,ou.se.     Geese. 

Trinoton  confiniiiDii.     Tvouse.     Geese. 

Trinofon  ItiriJinii.     Louse.     Ducks. 

Trinoton  li/iira/imi.     Louse.     Geese. 
Colpocep/ialnin  titrbinatuin.     Louse.     Pig-eons. 
Cheylciiella  hetcropalpa.     Mite.     Pig-eons. 
Syrino^opJiilus     bipcctinatns.     Mite.     Fowls,  (ruiiiea    fowls 
and  pij,'-eons. 

Syringophilus  uticinatiis.     Mite.     Peacocks. 

DermoglypliHS  elouffatus.     Mite.     Ft)wls  and  (Guinea  fo-,vls. 

Dcnnoglyphus  minor.     Mite.     Fowls  and  (ruinca  fowls. 

jycrmoglyphiis  varians.     Mite.     Guinea  fowls. 

Freyana  anatina.     Mite.     Ducks. 

Freyatia  chanayi.     Mite.     Turkeys. 

Megninia  asternalis.     Mite.     Fowls  and  Pii^'-eons. 

Megninia  cubitalis.     Mite.     Fowls. 

Megninia  ginglymura.     Mite.     Turkeys. 

Megninia  vela/a.     Mite.     Ducks. 

Plerolichiis  obfuses.     Mite.     Fowls. 

Pterolichus  uncinatus.     Mite.     Turkeys. 

Ptcrophagus  sirictus.     Mite.      Pigeons. 

Generai,  Considerations. —  We  have  grouped 
lo.gether,  as  epi/.oa  which  .suck  blood  or  gnaw  the 
flesh,  a  number  of  parasites  which  produce  somewhat 
similar  effects,  althoug-Ji,  zoologically  si)eakiiig,  these 
pests  differ  \^xy  widely.  They  resemble  each  other 
in  that  they  do  not  remain  constantly  upon  the  birds, 
most  of  the  varieties  hiding  about  the  roosts  or  houses 
during  the  day,  and  coming  out  of  their  concealment 
to  make  their  attacks  Ijy  night.  They  puncture  the 
skin,  and  suck  blood  for  their  nourishment.  The 
coleopterous  larvoe  gnaw  the  skin,  and  even  the  super- 
ficial muscles  of  the  neck  and  abdomen  of  young  pig- 
eons, producing  serious  wounds  and  often  causing 
death. 


16S  DISKASKS    or    POULTRY. 

The  Ijird  Ika  is  most  comnioiily  found  lormt'iiling^ 
pigeons  and  more  rarely  attacks  fowls.  The  dove- 
cote bug  closely  resembles  tlie  ordinary  bedbug,  and 
is  thought  l)y  some  to  be  identical  with  it.  When 
the  i)igeon  and  poultry -houses  l)ecome  infested  with 
this  insect,  it  muUi])lies  rapidly  and  is  extremely 
pernicious  in  its  effects.  The  tick  also  lives  in  the 
]:)igeon -cotes,  and  hides  during  the  day  in  the  cracks 
and  holes,  coming  out  at  night  to  attack  the  birds. 
Young  pigeons  are  the  preferred  victims,  and  so  much 
blood  is  taken  from  tliem  that  thej^  die  of  exhaustion 
in  from  ten  to  fifteen  days.  The  older  birds  are 
driven  from  their  nests  when  sitting,  and  altogether 
it  may  l)e  said  that  pigeon  raising  becomes  difficult  or 
impossible  while  these  pests  are  allowed  to  remain. 
They  are  found  most  frequently  on  the  neck  orl)e- 
neath  tl:e  breast,  but  maj^  fasten  themselves  to  the 
skin  of  any  part  of  the  1)ody.  The  mature  females 
are  about  one -fourth  incli  in  length.  These  parasites 
may  wander  a  consideral^le  distance,  and  are  some- 
times found  in  adjacent  fowl -houses,  and  even  in 
dwelling-houses.  They  are  said  not  to  trouble  fowls, 
Init  as  they  sometimes  bite  children  or  even  grown 
peo])le  causing  painful  swellings,  it  would  not  be 
suri)rising  if  it  were  found  that  they  occasionally 
also  attack  poultry. 

This  tick  lives  a  long  time  without  food  of  any 
kind,  and  it  may  subsist  for  generations  on  dead 
organic  matter.  It  is,  therefore,  a  troublesome  pest 
to  exterminate  when  it  is  once  established  on  any 
premises. 

The  harvest  bug  is  a  minute  red  insect  about  one- 
sixtieth  of  an  inch  long,  which  is  common  in  some 
sections  in  the   Summer  and  Fall.     It  ])referably  at- 


DISEASES    OF    POULTKV.  169 

lacks  small  animals,  but  often  swarms  U])on  man  if 
its  habitat  is  invaded.  It  punctures  and  even  pene- 
trates the  skin,  causing  small  swellings  and  almost 
insupportable  itching.  Fowls  are  sometimes  at- 
tacked, the  effects  being  most  serious  with  chickens 
hatched  late  in  Summer  or  in  the  Autumn.  The 
parasites  fix  themselves  to  the  skin  at  the  base  of  the 
feathers  producing  such  intense  irritation  as  to  in- 
duce epileptiform  symptoms  leading  to  death  in  a  few 
days.  The  mortality  from  this  cause  is  sometimes 
considerable. 

The  red  mite,  or  dcrmanyssus  ,s;alUncr,  is  the  most 
common  and  most  pernicioush'  active  of  all  the  para- 
sites which  attack  birds.  It  is  from  1  -35  to  1  -40  inch 
in  length,  j'ellowish,  white,  or  dark  red  in  color  ac- 
cording as  it  is  fasting  or  is  more  or  less  filled  with 
blood.  This  parasite  hides  by  day  in  the  crevices  and 
corners  of  the  buildings,  nests,  perches,  floors,  etc., 
where  it  may  be  found  in  great  clusters,  and  at  night 
the  indivifluals  composing  these  clusters  scatter  them- 
selves over  the  birds,  and  by  pricking  the  skin  fill 
themselves  with  blood.  They  are  injurious  not  only 
on  account  of  the  blood  which  is  abstracted,  liut  be- 
cause of  the  itching,  pain,  and  loss  of  rest  which  is  a 
necessary  consecjuence  of  their  activity. 

Young  pigeons,  chickens,  and  cage  birds  are  the 
greatest  sufferers;  their  skin  becomes  pale  and  blood- 
less, they  lo.se  their  usual  vigor  and  alertness,  become 
emaciated,  and  may  finally  die  from  exhaustion.  The 
red  mite  is  not  usually  found  upon  the  fowls  when 
they  are  examined  during  the  day,  for  its  natural 
tendency  is  to  confine  its  foraging  to  the  night,  but 
when  it  is  allowed  to  multiply  until  very  abundant 
the  fowls  are  infested  both   day  and  night,  and  it  be- 


170  disi-:asks  of  poi-i.tky. 

comes,  apparently  at  least,  a  permanent  parasite. 
According  to  Zurn,  these  mites  sometimes  enter  the 
nasal  cavities  of  3'oung  pigeons  and  chickens  and  set 
np  a  catarrhal  inflammation,  and  they  have  also  been 
found  in  the  external  ojK-ning  of  the  ear. 

The  red  mite  ma^'  get  upon  people  and  canse  con - 
sideral)le  itching  and  some  irritation  of  the  skin ; 
and  it  may,  also,  attack  horses  and  other  animals 
stabled  near  the  poultry- -roosts  It  causes  horses  to 
rub  and  bite  themselves,  the  hair  over  the  affected 
places  is  lost,  and  there  is  an  erui)tion  similar  to  that 
which  occurs  in  the  common  mange. 

The  epizoa  of  our  second  group  are  all  mites.  The 
Epidcrmoptcs  cause  a  form  of  scabies  characterized  by 
the  production  of  dry,  grayish -yellow  crusts  or  scales. 
The  disease  is  seen  on  an}'  part  of  the  body,  Ijut  only 
rarely  about  the  head. 

The  Sarcoptcs  Icrvis  produces  the  true  scabies  of 
fowls  and  pigeons.  The  skin  is  not  much  affected  but 
the  feathers  break  and  are  shed  from  the  affected  sur- 
faces. This  disease  and  tiie  scabies  of  the  legs  will 
be  treated  with  all  necessary  detail  at  the  end  of  the 
general  article  on  the  epizoa. 

The  animal  parasites,  which  live  in  the  connective 
tissue  and  air  sacs  might,  perhaps,  be  more  properly 
placed  among  the  entozoa.  They  are  all  mites,  and 
some  of  them  pass  a  portion  of  their  existence  upon 
the  surface  of  the  body.  It  is  most  convenient,  there- 
fore, to  consider  them  in  connection  with  the  other 
mites.  The  Cytoditcs  nudus  lives  in  the  air  sacs  and 
connective  tissue  of  fowls  and  pheasants.  They  are 
found  in  the  trachea,  bronchi,  lungs,  and  the  various 
air  sacs  including  those  of  the  bones.  They  have  also 
been  reported  as  found  in  the  thoracic  and  peritoneal 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  171 

cavities.  Some  authors  state  tliat  they  have  observed 
them  in  yellow,  miliary  tubercles  of  the  body  cavities, 
lungs,  liver,  and  kidne3's.  I,arge  numl:)ers  of  the 
Cytodites  may  exist  in  the  air  sacs  without  their  pres- 
ence being  suspected  during  the  life  of  the  bird. 
When  they  are  very  numerous  in  the  bronchi  they 
cause  irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane,  catarrh  and 
coughing.  Megnin  states  that  they  may  cause  death 
by  congestion  and  obstruction  of  the  bronchial  tul)es. 
Gerlach  and  Zundel  believe  that  the  Cytodites  may 
cause  enteritis  and  peritonitis.  In  small  numbers 
these  mites  are  not  very  injurious,  but  when  l)irds  are 
badly  infested  they  become  anaemic,  lose  f^esh,  stop 
laj'ingeggs,  show  catarrhal  S3'mptoms,  droop  and  die. 

The  Harpirhynchus  nididaas  lives  in  tumors  of  the 
skin  on  pigeons  and  sparrows.  When  present  in  small 
numbers  onlj^  it  is  nearly  harmless,  and,  at  most, 
causes  slight  local  irritation  and  disturbance  to  the 
growth  of  the  feathers.  If  very  numerous,  there  is 
impaired  nutrition,  loss  of  flesh,  and  frequentlj^  a 
fatal  ending. 

T\\&' Laniinosioptcs  cysticola  lives  in  the  connective 
tissue  of  the  Gallinacece  where  it  may  cause  irritation 
and  the  formation  of  tubercles,  in  the  center  of  which 
are  found  the  mites.  They  often  exist  without  affect- 
ing the  health  of  the  l)irds,  but  when  in  large  numl)ers 
there  are  the  usual  symptoms  produced  by  theepizoa, 
/.  r.,  bloodlessness,  weakness,  loss  of  flesh,  and, 
finall}^  death. 

The  Falciiicr  rostratus  of  the  ]Mgeon,  which  is  really 
one  of  the  feather  mites,  is  able  to  introduce  itself 
into  the  connective  tissue  beneath  the  skin,  which  it 
enters  by  way  of  the  feather  follicles,  and  there 
spends  a  ]iorti()n  of  its  life.      Robertson  examined  a 


172  i)isi;.\si:s  of  pout. try. 

considerable  nnml^er  of  lioth  wild  and  tame  pigeons 
and  rarely  found  the  connective  tissue  free  from  this 
parasite.  He  found  it  chief!}'  in  the  subcutaneous 
connective  tissue  around  the  large  veins  of  the  neck, 
and  on  the  surface  of  the  pericardium.  No  disturb- 
ance of  the  health  has  been  o])served  to  result  from 
the  presence  of  this  ]iarasite. 

Passing  now  to  the  fourth  group  of  epizoa,  those 
which  live  ujwn,  or  within,  or  among  the  feathers,  but 
do  not  bite  or  puncture  the  skin,  we  find  included  an 
extensive  list  of  lice  and  mites.  The  lice  of  birds  be- 
long exclusively  to  the  pennivorous  varieties,  that  is, 
they  subsist  upon  the  feathers,  and  perhaps  also  upon 
the  epidermic  scales,  but  the}'  do  not  suck  blood.  It 
is  a  curious  fact  that  the  blood -sucking  lice  all  live 
upon  the  mammalia.  The  lice  of  birds  var}'  greatly 
in  size,  the  largest  varieties  being  one -sixth  of  an 
inch  long,  and  the  smallest  not  more  than  one -thir- 
tieth of  an  inch  in  length. 

Young  chickens  hatched  under  hens  nearly  always 
have  lice  upon  them.  These  are  found  upon  the  head 
and  under  the  throat,  where  they  have  fixed  them- 
selves to  the  feathers  near  to  the  skin,  and  may  be 
mistaken  for  pin -feathers  upon  superficial  examina- 
tion. When  badly  infested,  the  parasites  may  also  be 
seen  under  the  wings  and  about  the  vent.  A  number 
of  different  kinds  of  lice  may  be  found  at  one  time  on 
the  same  bird,  and,  it  may  also  be  added,  each  species 
of  birds  has  its  own  species  of  lice.  The  lice  are 
more  or  less  injurious  to  the  plumage  of  infested 
birds,  they  cause  itching  bj'  roaming  over  the  skin, 
and  they  prevent  the  birds  from  obtaining  their 
proper  rest. 

The  mites  of  the  fourth  group  cause  little  or  no  in- 


DISICASl'S    Ol'    POUI.TKV.  173 

convenience  to  the  birds  which  they  infest.  Some 
live  between  the  barbules  of  the  feathers,  others  live 
within  the  qnills,  and  these  are  sometimes  called 
feather  mites.  The  Chcyletiis  lives  at  the  base  of  the 
feathers.  The  Syringophihis  lives  within  the  quills 
of  the  tail,  the  wing,  and  the  wing -coverts.  The 
([uills  of  the  affected  feathers  lose  their  transparency 
and  are  filled  with  an  opaque  powder,  which,  upon 
microscopical  examination,  is  found  to  consist  of  the 
parasites,  their  excreta,  the  skins  which  they  have 
shed  and  the  debris  of  the  interior  of  the  quill.  It  is 
supposed  that  this  alteration  of  the  feather  has  no 
effect  upon  the  health  of  the  bird.  The  DervioglyPhus 
and  Pterolichus  also  live  within  the  quills. 

Symptoms. — ^  Small  chickens  do  not  thrive,  and  if 
badly  infested  they  droop  and  die.  The  larger  chick- 
ens and  grown  birds,  when  severely  tormented  by  ex- 
ternal parasites,  lose  flesh,  the  skin  and  comb  become 
pale  and  bloodless ;  the  birds  are  scratching,  picking 
and  dusting  themselves  continually.  Unable  to  rest 
either  day  or  night,  and  losing  comparatively  large 
quantities  of  blood,  the  birds  rapidly  become  emaci- 
ated, sitting  hens  forsake  their  nests,  the  feathers  be- 
come broken  and  drop  out,  and  the  skin  becomes 
abraded  and  sore.  The  fowls  no  longer  thrive,  egg 
production  is  greatly  diminished  or  arrested,  and  oc- 
casionally a  bird  is  found  dead. 

By  opening  the  feathers  carefully  al^out  the  head, 
neck,  under  the  wings,  or  about  the  vent  of  the  fowls, 
lice  may  be  seen  moving  about.  Persons  going  about 
the  roosting -places  are  covered  with  the  vermin,  and 
an  examination  of  the  roosts  and  crevices  of  the 
building  near  the   roosts  will   reveal   large  clusters  of 


174  DISKASl'S   OF    ron.TKv. 

the  red  mites,  some  of  which  are  light  yellow  in  color, 
but  the  most  are  dark  red  and  gorged  with  Ijlood. 

The  existence  of  such  pests  as  the  bird  flea  and 
the  dove-cote  bug  can  only  be  determined  by  careful 
examination  of  the  poultry -houses  and  pigeon -cotes. 
The  coleoptera  larvce  should  be  suspected  in  case  sores 
are  found  upon  the  breast  and  neck  of  young  pigeons. 
When  pigeons  are  troubled  with  ticks,  these  parasites 
are  often  found  attached  to  the  skin  on  some  part  of 
the  bird's  body. 

When  the  skin  is  irritated,  inflamed,  and  covered 
with  scurf,  scales  and  crusts,  with  loss  of  feathers,  or 
if  the  feathers  are  shed  when  the  birds  are  not  nor- 
mally molting,  an  examination  should  be  made  for 
the  mites  which  cause  scabies.  If  the  legs  become 
enlarged,  roughened,  and  scaly  the  effects  of  the 
Sarcopics  viutans  are  indicated.  The  discovery  of 
small  nodules  in  the  skin  or  of  miliary  tubercles  on 
the  serous  membranes,  in  the  connective  tissue,  lungs, 
or  other  organs,  should  be  followed  by  an  examina- 
tion with  a  hand  lens  to  determine  if  these  are  due  to 
the  air -sac  or  connective -tissue  mites. 

Diagnosis. —  It  may  be  said  that  the  diagnosis  or 
determination  of  such  disorders  is  easily  made  and 
unmistakable,  if  a  careful  search  is  made  for  the  para- 
sites. In  one  sense  this  is  true,  but  birds  are  often 
unthrifty,  leave  their  nests,  or  even  die  from  the  ef- 
fects of  lice  or  mites  without  the  true  cause  being 
suspected.  People  either  neglect  to  look  for  the  para- 
sites, and  attribute  their  trouble  to  cholera ;  or  if  they 
observe  a  few  lice  they  conclude  that  these  are  nor- 
mally present  with  birds  and  give  them  no  further 
thought.  It  is  only  after  a  careful  examination  of  the 
roosting  places  by  taking  down  the  roosts  and  remov- 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTKV.  175 

inj;-  loose  boards  and  thus  uncovering  the  parasites 
that  the  extent  of  the  plague  can  be  appreciated.  It 
should  be  remembered  at  all 
times  that  the  external  animal 
parasites  are  the  most  common 
and  frequent  cause  of  trou- 
,?#'Sx^^^  hie  in  the  poultry -5^ard  and 
Wii)^^^_  pigeon -cote.  If  the  birds  are 
not  thriving  and  conducting 
lititiiJi^^aa^,  ^^  themselves  satisfactorily,  look 
fetaia©:f^  for  these  pests,  take  measures 

I    '  ^^^^^ !  to  repress  them,  and   in  most 

^fi$ti3|M,i  cases  the  results  will  be  sur- 

/  Wj^I^  prising  and  gratifying.    When 

anything  is  the  matter  with  a 
Tig.  :^.-Me„opo„  bi.criutu,n.    ^orsc  the  maxim  is  examine  Iiis 
(Fowls.)  y^.^Y,     and    when    anything    is 

found    wrong    with    poultry    or    other   domesticated 
birds,    the    maxim    should    be    Uyok    for    lice. 

Causation. —  The     louse  ^__ 

plague  is  the  result  of  con- 
tagion.    The     parasites    are 

introduced    upon  birds,   and  ^^^"3^^""^^!^*^ x' 

they  multiply  and  increase  to 
a    remarkable    extent    when 
the  conditions  are  favorable.     ^^  ^^?rf*J^T??r? 
It   has    been    estimated   that  '  ^^-;.f,i>l;«,Wa^\ 

the  second  generation  from  a  i  ^t^^'w'^^i^'V 

single    louse     may      number 
twenty -five  hundred  indi-  i'  r    ^'i 

viduals,  and  the   third  gen-         v\e.2.<).~Mttwpon latum. 

.  t      it-  (Pig-eons.) 

eration  may  reach  the  enor- 
mous number  of  one  hundred   and  twenty -five  thou- 
sand;  and  all  of  tliese  may  be  produced  in  the  course 


176 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 


of  eight  weeks.  It  is  not  sur])risius:,  therefore,  that, 
althougli  birds  have  so  few  parasites  upon  them  when 
well  cared  for  that  these  insects  can  not  be  discovered, 
a  few  weeks  of  neglect  and  unfavorable  surroundings 
may  bring  an  entire  change  and  reveal  them  covered 
with  vermin,  exhausted  and  emaciated. 

It  is  not  many  years  since  there  was  a  general  belief 
in  the  spontaneous  generation  of  lice  from  accumula- 
tions of  dirt  and  filth,  and  a  remnant  of  this  belief 
still  lingers  in  many  minds.  We  maj'  now  safely 
banish  any  tendency  to  this  antiquated  theory  which 
we  ma}'  have  inherited  or  ac- 
quired through  the  influence  of 
tradition.  The  theory  of  spon- 
taneous generation  was  first  ex - 
])loded  as  applied  to  crocodiles 
and  reptiles  of  the  tropical 
swamps  and  rivers ;  still  later  it 
was  shown  to  be  untrue  with  re- 
gard to  lice  and  other  insects,  and 
finall}'  it  was  disproved  in  rela- 
tion to  the  very  smallest  organ- 
isms that  are  revealed  by  the 
highest  powers  of  the  microscope. 
Today  it  is  admitted  by  all  scientists  that  every  living 
thing  is  descended  from  a  living  parent  of  the  same 
nature. 

The  different  species  of  lice  and  mites  are  as  easily 
distinguished  from  each  other  by  experts  as  are  the 
different  species  of  birds.  Their  peculiarities  are  in- 
herited from  generation  to  generation,  and  they  con- 
tinue to  live  upon  the  same  species  of  birds.  The 
hens,  the  turkey's,  the  pigeons,  the  ducks,  the  geese, 
and  the  Guinea  fowls  each   have  their  peculiar  species 


Fig.  40. — Lipeurus  cohimhae 
(Piffeons.) 


DISKASMS    (M'-    IHirLTKY. 


177 


of  lice  which  live  upon  thcni  alone,  and  there  are  but 
comparatively  few  kinds  of  lice  which  live  upon  two 
or  more  species  of  birds.  We  may,  consequently, 
favor  the  multiplication  of  lice  by  making  the  con- 
ditions favorable  for  them,  but  we  can  not  prodvice  lice 
where  none  exist. 

The  conditions  which  favor  the  nudtiplication  of 
lice  and  other  external  parasites  are  found  partly  in 
the  1)irds  and  partly  in  the  surroundino;s.  Unhealthy 
or  unthrift}^  birds,  or  those  which 
from  any  cause  lack  strength  and 
vigor  are  most  subject  to  the  at- 
tacks of  such  i)arasites,  and  may 
be  found  literally  covered  with 
them  when  other  members  of  the 
flock  are  comparatively  free  from 
their  attacks.  For  similar  rea- 
sons some  varieties  of  birds  are 
much  more  likely  to  be  infested 
with  vermin  iinder  the  same  con- 
ditions than  are  others.  There  rXiiAx.—Goitiodesdissim^iix. 
are  birds  so  strong,  healthy  and 

vigorous  that  lice  can  not  thrive  u])on  them.  Exer- 
cise, proper  feeding,  pure  air,  all  have  a  tendency  to 
keep  the  birds  in  a  condition  unfavorable  to  the  ex- 
istence of  the  parasites.  On  the  other  hand  accumu- 
lations of  manure  and  filth,  close  confinement  of  the 
birds,  lack  of  dusting  places,  buildings  with  crevices 
in  which  the  insects  may  hide,  and  damp,  dark  and 
badly  ventilated  houses  are  conditions  which  favor  the 
parasites  and  lead  to  their  rapid  development. 

The  twultrj^-yard  may  be  kept  practically  free  from 
these  insect  pests,  but  there  is  always  a  liability'  of 
their  introduction  with  ])urchased  fowls  or  with  ])irds 


178 


DISEASES    OF    POUl.TKV. 


that  have  become  infested  at  shows  and  other  places. 
Contagion  must,  therefore,  be  accepted  as  the  cause  of 
this  plague,  and  it  should  be  guarded  against  on  the 
same  principles  as  are  the  infective  elements  of  other 
communicable  diseases. 

Treatment. —  Young  cliickens  hatched  under  hens 
almost  invariably  have  lice  ujion  them  and  should  be 
treated  as  soon  as  removed  from  the  nests.     An  effica- 
cious and  safe  remedy  in  this  case   is  pure  lard.     It 
should  be  carefully  rubbed   into  the  feathers  upon  the 
top  of  the  head  and  under  the  throat.     Lard  obstructs 
the  breathing  pores  of  the  lice  and  soon   kills  them. 
Nothing   should    be    mixed  with  the 
lard  to    increase  its   activity   as  such 
young  birds  are  very  sensitive  to  the 
action  of  irritants  and  are  seriously 
injured  by   them.     Some  recommend 
mixing  powdered  sulphur  with  the  lard 
for  this  purpose;   but   it  should  on  no 
account  be  used  on  small  chickens  as 
it  causes  inflammation  of  the  eyes  and 
arrests     the    growth.     Pure     lard    is 
harmless  and  will  kill   the  lice,  con- 
sequently it   can   be    used    with   full 
confidence.     A   small    quantity  may    also  be  rubbed 
under  the  wings,  but  this   is  not  usually  considered 
necessary  until  the  chicks  are  a  week  or  two  old. 

Chickens  hatched  in  the  incubator  should  be  free 
from  lice,  and  will  be  unless  the  incubator  has  in  some 
way  become  infested.  It  is  well  to  examine  even  in- 
cubator chicks  occasionally  for  lice  as  the  incubator  or 
brooder  may  have  these  insects  introduced  into  them 
in  various  ways  and  then  become  favorable  places  for 
the  growth  of  the  parasites  as  well  as  for  the  develop - 


¥\g.  42— 
Lipi'iirua  caponis. 

(Fowls.) 


DISKASHS    OF    POri.TKV. 


179 


ment  of  the  ])irds.     The  older  birds,  but  not  the  hens 
with    young    chickens,    may    be    anointed    about   the 
heads,  under  the  wings,  and  around  the  vent  with  an 
ointment  made  by  thoroughly  mixing  a  teaspoonful  of 
flowers  of  sulphur  with  an  ounce  of  lard.     Some  use 
instead  of  this  ointment  or  in  combination  with  it  in- 
secticide powder,  which   is  blown  or  dusted  into  the 
feathers.     This  operation  is  best  performed  by  holding 
the  bird  by  the  legs,  head  downwards,   so  that  the 
tendency  of  the  feathers  will  be  to  fall  away  from  the 
body.     Then    apply   the    powder   thoroughly   with    a 
dredging  box  or  a  powder  bellows. 
If  the    bird    is   held   over   a   large 
piece   of    paper  the  powder  which 
fails  to  adhere   to   the   feathers   and 
skin   can    be    saved     and    used    a 
second    time.     The   powders   most 
generall}'  used  for  this  purpose  are 
pyrethrum,    stavesacre    seeds,    and 
flowers    of     sulphur.     It    is     con- 
sidered a  good  plan  to  moisten  the 
roots    of    the   feathers  with  soapy 
water  in  order  to  make  the  pyreth  - 
rum  or  stavesacre  powder  adhere.     Some  poultrj-men 
dip  their  fowls   in  a  solution  containing  one  per  cent 
carbolic  acid.     This  s-olution  is  made  by  mixing  !}( 
ounces     of    pure     carbolic    acid    with     1    gallon    of 
hot    water.     Larger     quantities    may     be     made    in 
the    same    proportion.     The    solution    is  allowed    to 
cool  and  is  then  put  in  a  vessel  suitable  for  immersing 
the  bird  to  be  treated.     The  fowls  should   be  held  in 
this  liquid  for  about  a  minute  and  care  should  betaken 
to  wet  every  portion  of  the  body  and  head.     Creolin 
will  probably  prove   more  satisfactory  .for  this  treat - 


Fig■.43.— 

Menopoii  pallidum. 
(Fowls. i 


180  di.si:asi:s  or  poultry. 

ment  than  carbolic  acid,  as  it  is  cquaHy  efficacious  in 
killing  insects,  but  is  less  poisonous  to  birds  and  the 
odor  is  less  objectionable  to  the  o])erator.  It  is  used 
in  the  strength  of  2 'j  ounces  mixed  with  a  gallon  of 
water. 

Tl.e  treatment   of  the  birds  with   some  of  the  sub- 
stances mentioned,   although     it    is    in- 
dispensal)le  for  the  control  of  the  para- 
sites, is  not  alone  sufficient.     The  build  - 
iiigs  must  receive  prompt  attention  and 
thorough     treatment.     The     droppings 
should  be  carefull}^  removed  and  mixed 
with  fine,  dry  road  dust,  ashes  or  lime. 
Fine  dust  is  destructive  to   the   lice  and 
Fitr.44.-         hence  should  be   plentifully  used  about 
'^°'''''"'tiogasi.-r.  the  buildings,  and  given  to  the  fowls  in 
•Fowls.)  boxes  so  large  that  they  can  thoroughly 

dust  themselves  in  it.  Pyrethrum  and  sulphur  may 
be  mixed  with  the  dust  in  such  boxes  and  render  it 
more  deadly  to  the  insects. 

The  floor  of  the  poultry -house  or  pigeon -cote 
should  be  thoroughly  scraped,  and  covered  with  fresh 
sand  or  road  dust.  The  roosts  and  all  loose  pieces  of 
wood  should  be  removed  and  then  the  whole  inside 
and  also  the  parts  which  have  been  removed  should 
be  well  wetted  by  spraying  with  a  solution  made  by 
dissolving  6  ounces  of  crude  carbolic  acid  to  the  gallon 
of  water.  This  should  be  mixed  with  the  water  at 
nearly  the  boiling  point  as  carbolic  acid  does  not 
readily  mix  with  cold  water.  At  least  once  a  year  the 
inside  woodwork  and  walls  should  be  given  a  good 
coat  of  lime -wash  to  which  4  ounces  of  crude  carbolic 
acid  for  each  gallon  has  been  added.  The  nests  should 
also  be  cleaned  out,  drenched  with  boiling  water  or 


disi-:asks  of  Pori.TKV. 


181 


carbolic  solution,  and  wIilu  di}-  s])rinkk-(l  with  in- 
secticide powder  and  bedded  with  fresh  straw.  The 
carbolic  preparations  shouKl  always  be  used  in  the 
morning  and  the  buildings  thoroughly  ventilated  dur- 
ing the  day  so  that  the  odor  will  not  l)e  so  strong  as 
to  be  injurious  to  the  birds  at  night. 

The  treatment  recommended  al)Ove,  if  thoroughly 
carried  out,  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  troublesome  ex- 
ternal parasites  either  eradicated  or  under  such  con- 
trol that  they  will  not  prove  injurious.  For  con- 
venience various  other  methods  have  been  devised 
which  are  more  or  less  effectual.  Some  throw  dry 
lime  dust  against  the  roof  and  walls  of  the  buildings; 
others  fumigate  by  burning  sulphur  and  leaving  the 
doors  and  windows  closed  for  a  few  hours,  there 
being,  of  course,  no  birds 
left  inside  at  the  time;  still 
others  fumigate  by  placing 
open  bottles  of  bisulphide 
of  carbon  about  the  poul  - 
try -house.  Aniseed  is  dis- 
tasteful to  most  of  the 
vermin  of  birds,  and  is  an 
excellent  remedy  when 
powdered  and  dusted  into 
the  feathers,  or  when 
strewn  into  the  nest  boxes. 
A  small  quantity  of  the 
essential  oil  mixed  with 
hot  water  renders  this  more  effectual  in  destroying  the 
mites  about  the  roosts,  nests  and  other  woodwork. 
The  essential  oil  may  also  be  mixed  with  olive  oil  and 
rubbed  upon  those  parts  of  the  birds  most  frequented 
by  lice;  and  in  case  of  catarrh  caused  by  the  red  mite 


FifT.  45. — Dermaiivsstis gal/iiiie. 

Red  mite.)  Matrnified  75  diameters. 

I'pper  surface. 


T^  OF   TBP  "   ^ 

UNIVERSITY 


182 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY, 


this  mixture  may  l)e  introduced  into  the  nasal  pas- 
sages with  a  small  feather. 

In  case  the  larvie  of  the  Cohoptcra  attack  the  young 
pigeons,  the  houses  should  ])e  cleaned  as  thoroughly 
as  possible,  in  the  manner  which  has  been  specified, 

and  the  nests  and  floor 
should  be  strewn  with  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
pine  sawdust  and  sand. 

When  the  Arx'as  or  pigeon 
tick  is  introduced  upon  a 
premises  it  must  be  de- 
stroj'ed  by  every  possible 
means.  The  ticks  should  be 
carefully  picked  from  the 
birds  so  that  the  head  (ros- 
Fie.'io.-u.r„u,„ys.„sga//i>ue.      truHi)  will  not  be  left  in  the 

(Red  mite.)  Magnified  /S 

diameters.     Under  surface.    WOUUd.       They    sllOUld    then 

be  crushed  or  burned.  The  infested  pigeon -cotes 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  scalded  and  white- 
washed. Insecticide  powder  should  be  freely  used 
upon  the  birds  and  nests. 

The  harvest  bug  may  be  destroyed  and  kept  away 
from  fowls  if  creolin,  carbolic  or  sulphur  ointment  is 
freely  used  upon  the  birds. 

The  Epidcrmoptcs  are  combated  with  creolin  dii)S, 
and  sulphur  ointment. 

The  mites  which  live  in  the  air  sacs  and  connective 
tissue  can  not  be  reached  by  anj^  kind  of  medication. 
They  can  only  be  eradicated  from  the  flock  by  con- 
stant attention  to  all  the  details  necessarj'  to  ensure 
cleanliness,  by  killing  affected  birds  and  by  burning 
their  carcasses. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 


183 


SCAHIi:S    OK    MANC.  K    OF    THE    BODY. 

Two  varielies  of  scabies  have  been  described  as  af- 
fecting the  bodies  of  the  domesticated  birds.  One 
form  has  been  attributed  to  mites  of  the  genus  Epider- 
moptcs  and  the  other  is  known  to  be  caused  by  the 
Sarcoptcs.  These  varieties  being  quite  distinct  will  be 
described  separately. 

SCABIES    CAUSED    BY    EPIDERMOPTES. 

The  two  species  named  Epidcrmoptcs  bilobatus  and 
Epidennoptes  bifiircatus  have  been  observed  by  a  num  - 
ber  of  authors,  and  their  presence  is  generally  coinci- 
dent with  a  mange -like  disease  of  the  skin,  although 
the}^  have  also  been  discovered  upon 
fowls  apparently  free  from  this  disease. 
There  is,  consequentl}-,  some  doubt  as 
to  whether  the.se  mites  produce  scabies, 
or  whether  they  are  inoffensive.  The 
preponderance  of  evidence  at  present 
indicates,  however,  that  the}'  are  the 
cause  of  the  disease  which  has  been 
attributed  to  them. 

The  Epidcrmoptcs  are  ver}'  small  aca  - 
rina,  or  mites  which  generally  live  in 
the  soft  plumage  or  down  at  the  surface 
of  the  skin.  Usually  they  are  not  Dimumyssus 
numerous  but  under  certain  conditions  Red  mite)  E^e 
they  multiply  enormously.  The  skin  MaVnrfie/Ti'dT- 
of  various  parts  of  the  body  or  over  **'"<'*'"'"^- 
the  entire  body,  with  the  exception  of  the  head,  be- 
comes irritated,  scurfy,  and  covered  with  large,  thin, 
yellowish  or  grayish  scales  or  crusts  which  accumu- 
late particularly  at  the  base  of  the  feathers.  In  rare 
instances  the  head  may  be  affected;  but  it  is  generally 
the     neck,     breast,     the     region    under    the    wings, 


184 


DISKASKS    OI-    POULTRY. 


and  the  wings  themselves,  that  are  found  diseased. 
The  api)earance  of  the  affected  parts  resembles 
closely  that  seen  in  faviis — the  disease  caused  by  the 
veg;etable  parasite  known  as  the  Achorion  Schonleinii . 
Some  have,  therefore,  suspected  that  the  disease  is 
reallj'  due  to  this  fungus  and  that  tlie  mites  are  inno- 
cent of  pathogenic  action.  The  truth  must  be  de- 
termined b}'  future  investigations. 

SCABIKS  CAUSED  BY  SARCOPTES — DEPLUMING  SCABIES. 

This  form  of  scabies  was  first  observed  by  Railliet 
and  Cadiot,  in  1885,  on  a  Homing  Pigeon  from  Brus- 
sels. It  was  later  found  by 
Railliet  to  be  a  frequent  af- 
fection of  fowls.  It  is 
caused  by  the  mite  known 
as  the  Sarcoptes  hrvis.  The 
parasite  found  on  the  pig- 
eon is  not  exactly  the  same 
as  that  found  ujion  fowls 
although  both  belong  to  the 
same  species.  The  variety 
which  lives  upon  the  pigeon 
is  distinguished  b}-  the  term 
coIiDubce,  and  that  which 
lives    upon    fowls    b\'     the 

v;nln!/'rurVacl;''^'rna;aifi"ed  VsS  term  galliucr.     The   disease 
diameters.  jg  niost  coHimou  iu   Spring 

and  Summer,  disappearing  in  the  Fall  when  the  birds 
molt,  and  is  seen  again  towards  Spring. 

The  principal  symptom  of  this  trouble  is  a  loss  of 
feathers  from  spots  of  various  sizes,  situated  on  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  body.  Tlie  feathers  break  off  at  the 
surface  of  the  skin,  and  at  the  root  of  the  feather  is 
seen  a  small  mass  of  epidermic  scales  which  is  easily 


Fitr.    48. — Epiderino/'li-x    hilohaliia 


disp:asks  oi-  pout.tky. 


185 


cruslK'il  into  powder.  A  microscopic  exainiuation  of 
this  powder  reveals  numerous  mites  and  the  debris 
which  they  produce. 

The  disease  appears  in  ])oultry -yards  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  introduction  of  one  or  more  birds  al- 
ready' affected.  It  is 
readily  communi- 
cated ,  develops  rapid  - 
ly  and  in  a  few  days  a 
whole  flock  is  con- 
taminated. It  usually 
begins  on  the  rump, 
the  transfer  of  con- 
tagion being  effected 
bj"  copulation,  and 
spreads  rapidly  to  the 
back,  the  thighs  and 
the  belly.  An  infest- 
ed cock  will  rapidly 
infect  all  tlie  fowls  in 
a  poultry -yard.  Often 
the  head  and  the  up  - 
])er  surface  of  the  neck  are  affected  early  in  the 
course  of  the  disease.  The  feathers  fall  off  at  all 
these  points,  and  finally  the  skin  is  denuded  over  a 
large  extent  of  surface.  The  large  feathers  of  the 
tail  and  wings  and  the  wing -coverts  are  generally 
retained. 

The  denuded  skin  presents  a  normal  appearance — 
it  is  smooth,  soft,  of  a  pinkish  color  and  not  percepti- 
bly thickened.  By  pulling  out  the  feathers  which 
remain  near  the  invaded  parts,  it  is  easy  to  find,  with 
both  fowls  and  pigeons,  a  mass  of  epidermic  scales  at 


Fit;-.  4'>.— /C /'/,/,>■ /iio/^hs  bilohoius  of  the 
fowl;  feniali',  seen  on  the  ventral  surface; 
magnilied  15J  diameters. 


186 


DISEASES    OF    POULTKY. 


the  end   of  the  quill   which  contains  a  number  of  the 
parasites. 

The  general  health  of  the  birds  is  apparently  not 
disturbed.  They  remain  in  good  flesh,  and  continue 
to  lay  as  though  thej'  were  not  affected.  It  seems 
probable  that  much  of  the  irregular  molting,  feather 
pulling  and  feather  eating  are  due  to  the  irritation 
caused  by  the  Sajcopics  Iccvis. 

Treatment. —  The   treatment    of    scabies   of    the 

body  is  not 
very  difBcult 
but  must  be 
persisted  in 
until  a  cure  is 
effected.  Hel- 
merich's  oint- 
ment is  usually 
recommended. 
A  m  o  d  i  fi  e  d 
form  more 
suitable  for 
use  on  the 
1)odies  of  birds 
may  be  pre- 
pared l)y  thor- 
oughly mix- 
i  ng  the  follow - 

Fig.  50.— Sarro/'/ts  Ar?'/.*,  var.  gulliinr;  male,  seen  iug  ingrC" 
on  the  ventral  surface;  raapnified  200  diameters.  ,■        ,  rM^,,. 

uients  :  r  low  - 
ers  of  sulphur,  1  dram,  carbonate  of  potash,  20  grains, 
lard  or  vaseline,  ]z  ounce.  This  ointment  should  be 
rubbed  over  the  affected  portions  of  the  skin  and  the 
adjacent  parts.  In  place  of  this  there  may  be  substi- 
tuted creolin  or  carbolic  ointment,  made   bj^  mixing 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 


187 


1  part  of  either  of  these  substances  with  10  parts  by 
weight  of  bird  or  vaseline.  A  very  large  surface  of 
the  body  shoukl  not  be  covered  with  strong  carbolic 
acid  preparations  on  account  of  the  danger  of  absorp- 
tion and  poisoning. 

Convenient  liquid  preparations  for  the  treatment  of 
scabies  are  made  by  mixing  Peruvian  balsam  1  ounce, 
alcohol  3  ounces;  or, 
glycerine  3  ounces,  water 
1  ounce,  carbolic  acid  1 
dram;  or,  glycerine  2 
ounces,  alcohol  /j  ounce, 
water  Yz  ounce,  creolin 
1  dram.  The  affected 
parts  of  the  body  may  be 
rubbed  with  either  one  of 
these  preparations  every 
four  or  five  days  until  a 
cure  is  effected. 

It  is  well  to  finish  the 
treatment  by  dipping  the 
birds  in    a    two -per -cent     y\s-5i.—Sarcopu.'!hvTis,\^r.  gn/- 

hnoe;  ovig-erous  female,  seen  on    the 
creolin     1)ath     (2    'i    ounces    florsal  surlace:    matrnified  1(X)  diam- 
■  "  "      eters. 

creolin     to    1      gallon    of 

water)  and  to  whitewash  the  houses  with  carbolated 
whitewash.  This  will  kill  any  mites  which  may  be 
left  in  the  feathers  or  about  the  roosts.-' 

FAVUS. 

This  disease  is  popularly  known  as  "  baldness  "  or 
"  white  comb."  It  is  caused  bj^  a  fungus  named  the 
Achorion  Schonleinii,  which  also  attacks  mankind, 
dogs,  cats,  rabbits  and  mice.  When  it  affects  people 
the  disease  is  known  as  tinea  favosa  and  faviis,  the 
tendency  being  to  accept  the  latter  name.     The  para- 


188 


1)i.si:asks  of  poui.trv. 


site  was  discovered  in  tl:e  disease  of  man  by  Remak 
in  \SM  and  more  completely  demor.strated  by  Schon- 
lein  in  1841.  It  was  discovered  as  affecting  cats  by 
Jacquetant  in  1847,  and  on  mice  by  Bennett  in  1850; 
while  Gerlach,  Muller  and  Leisering  each  published 
cases  of  it  on  poultry  in   1858.     Saint  Cyr  described 

the  first  case  of 
favus  on  the  dog 
in  1868  and  in 
1869  he  discov- 
ered it  on  the 
rabbit. 

S  V  MP  TOMS. — 

Favus  is  a  dis- 
ease of  the  skin 
which  in  birds 
generally  com- 
mences upon  the 
comb,  or  other 
fleshy  parts  of 
the  head  and 
gradually  extends 
to  and  affects  the 
skin  of  the  body. 
In   rare   cases   it 

Flu.  S2.-Sarcopies    Uvis,   var.  ^„///,;.^'    larva,    j^ggiuS    Upon     the 
;en  on  the  ventral  surface;  niajriiified  200diam  =>  t- 

body  before  the 
head  is  affected.  The  disease  manifests  itself  by 
small  white  or  light  gray,  round  or  irregular  spots, 
from  the  size  of  a  pinhead  to  that  of  a  dime,  that  ex- 
tend and  increase  in  number,  until  nearly  all  of  the 
skin  of  the  affected  part  is  covered.  An  examination 
of  these  spots  shows  that  a  thin  scale  or  crust  has 
formed  on  the  surface  of  the  skin.     This  crust  often 


seen  on 
eters 


DISEASKS    OK    POULTRY 


189 


develops  in  round  or  concentric  deposits,  raised  at  the 
border  and  dei)ressed  at  the  center,  givinc^  to  the  spots 
a  cup -shaped  appearance.  The  crust  increases  in 
thickness  until  in  the  course  of  a  month  it  may  be 
one -fourth  inch  or  more  in  depth.  It  is  then  of  a 
dirty -white  color,  scaly  and  irre:jular  on  the  surface. 
When  the  crust  is  removed  the  skin  is  seen  to  be  irri  - 
tated  and  slightly 
excoriated.      The 


^^x% 


disease  extends 
from  the  bare  parts 
of  the  head  to  the 
parts  of  the  body 
covered  with 
feathers.  The 
neck,  the  region 
about  the  vent,  and 
the  adjoining  sur- 
faces are  soon  in- 
vaded.  The 
feathers  become 
dry,  erect  and  brit  - 
tie,  they  break  and 
fall  off  leaving  the 
skin  denuded  and 
covered  with 
crusts,  which  are 
often  cup -shaped,  having  in  the  center  the  (le])rL*ssion 
in  which  the  feather  was  fixed. 

At  first  the  general  health  of  the  bird  is  not  visibly 
affected,  it  appears  bright,  eats  well  and  conducts  it- 
self as  usual.  After  a  time,  however,  when  a  con- 
siderable area  has  been  invaded,  it  manifests  weak- 
ness, loses  flesh,  its  appetite  becomes  irregular  and  it 


^3  —He  id  and   neck  of   a  f<)\\  1  iffcLted 
..  all  frei.eral.-ted  fa\us. 


190 


I)ISKASI-;S    Ol-    POULTRY. 


falls  into  a  decline  which  continues  until  the  forces 
of  the  body  are  exhausted  and  it  dies.  During  the 
course  of  the  disease  the  affected  l)irds  give  off  a  dis- 
agreeable odor  which  has  been  likened  by  some  to  that 
of  moldy  cheese  and  by  others  to  the  exhalations  from 
mice,  cat's  urine,  or  macerating  animal  substances. 

Causation. —  Favus  is  a  contagious  disease,  and, 
as  has  already  l)een  stated,  it  is  caused  by  a  fungus 
which  has  been   named    Achorion    SchonleUiii.     If    a 

small  particle  of  one 
of  the  crusts  is  taken, 
placed  upon  a  glass 
slip  and  moistened 
with  water  or  dilute 
acetic  acid  and  sub- 
mitted to  microscopic 
examination  at  a 
magnification  of  300 
to  500  diameters,  it  is 
seen  to  be  made  up  of 
threads  or  mj-celium 
of  the  fungus  held  to- 
gether ])y  a  thick, 
viscid,  gelatinous  sub  - 
stance  which  it  se- 
cretes. Numerous 
spherical  or  ovoid 
spores  are  also  visible 
both  within  the  filaments  and  in  a  free  condition.  An 
examination  of  the  feathers  on  the  affected  parts  re- 
veals the  fact  that  the  fungnis  has  penetrated  the  shaft, 
filled  it  with  crusts,  and  has  in  some  cases  even 
reached  the  barbs. 

The  disease  may  be   inoculated  from  bird  to  l)ird, 


Fi(j.  54.— The  Aclioiioii  Srhoii/iiiiii  oi  the 
favus  of  poultry;  niafriiificd  800  diameters. 

/?•,  empty  tubes:  //,  tubes  filled  with 
protoplasm  and  containing'  spores;  s,  iso- 
lated spores. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTkV.  191 

and  probably  also  from  mice,  rats,  rabbits,  cats  and 
dog^s  to  birds.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  pro1)ably 
also  be  communicated  from  birds  to  these  animals  and 
to  children.  Some  authorities  consider  the  poultry 
favus  a  distinct  form  of  the  disease  and  not  communi- 
cable to  mammals,  but  the  weight  of  evidence  favors 
the  conclusion  that  the  disease  in  all  of  these  species 
is  identical  and  intercommunicable.  Apparently'  a 
wound  or  abrasion  of  the  skin  is  necessary  to  enable 
the  fungus  to  obtain  a  foothold.  The  filaments  and 
spores  suspended  in  water  have  been  placed  upon  the 
combs  of  poultry  without  effect,  until  the  surface  of 
the  skin  was  scratched  or  a])raded.  As  fowls  come 
into  close  contact  with  each  other  and  often  have 
wounds  of  the  skin  from  fighting  or  other  causes,  the 
disease  spreads  rapidly  among  them  and  unless  proper 
measures  are  adopted  for  its  arrest  the  results  may  be 
disastrous  to  the  flock.  Young  birds  appear  to  be 
more  susceptible  to  this  disease  than  old  ones,  and 
large  birds  particularly  of  the  Asiatic  breeds  are  pre- 
disposed to  it  though  no  varieties  are  altogether 
exempt. 

Treatment. —  Favus  yields  readily  to  proper  treat- 
ment if  it  is  not  allowed  to  develop  too  far  before 
remedial  measures  are  applied.  When  confined  to  the 
parts  of  the  head  that  are  bare  of  feathers,  it  is  not 
diflSicult  to  manage,  but  when  it  spreads  to  parts  cov- 
ered by  feathers  and  also  affects  the  plumage  it  be- 
comes much  more  serious. 

It  is  important  that  the  remedy  used  should  pene- 
trate beneath  the  crusts  to  the  skin,  and  to  secure  this 
the  crusts  may  be  rubbed  off  as  thoroughly  as  possi- 
ble with  a  blunt  instrument  such  as  the  handle  of  a 
spoon.     This  should  be  done  gently  so  as  not  to  cause 


192  DISICASES    OF    POULTKY. 

bleeding.  After  the  crusts  are  removed  dress  the  af- 
fected part  once  a  day  with  anj'  one  of  the  following 
preparations :  Tincture  of  iodine.  Benzine  1  part, 
soft  soap  20  parts;  mix  thoroughly  before  using.  Or 
carbolic  acid  1  part,  soft  soap  20  parts,  to  be  well 
mixed.  The  carbolic  preparation  should  not  be  ap- 
I^lied  to  a  large  surface  at  one  time  as  the  acid  may  be 
absorbed  and  cause  poisoning.  A  good  ointment  may 
be  made  with  either  calomel  or  red  oxide  of  mercurj' 
1  part  to  8  parts  of  vaseline.  If  the  above  mentioned 
remedies  fail  a  more  active,  but  also  more  dangerous 
ointment  ma}'  be  made  by  mixing  3  grains  of  nitrate 
of  silver  with  Vz  ounce  of  vaseline.  This  ointment 
should  be  made  by  the  druggist  and  carefully  rubbed 
upon  the  diseased  surface.  Another  remedy,  which 
on  account  of  its  poisonous  character  should  only  be 
used  as  a  last  resort,  is  made  by  dissolving  10  grains 
of  corrosive  sublimate  in  an  ounce  of  water. 

In  the  remedies  here  mentioned  the  means  are  pro- 
vided for  effectually  arresting  this  troublesome  malady 
and  eradicating  it  from  the  poultry -j^ard.  If  taken 
in  time,  the  application  of  the  milder  preparations 
daily  for  a  few  days  will  be  sufficient ;  but  in  case  a 
number  of  birds  become  affected  and  particularly  if 
feathered  parts  are  involved,  the  more  active  agents 
will  be  required.  It  is,  also,  necessary  to  adopt  sani- 
tary regulations.  The  affected  birds  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  well  ones,  and  the  houses  and  ruas 
should  be  disinfected  with  limewash  and  carbolic 
acid  solution. 

CHICKEN    POX — SORE    HEAD  —  PIGEON    POX. 

This  disease  has  been  for  many  years  familiar  to 
students  of  veterinary  medicine,  l^oth  in  Europe  and 
America.     It  was   at  first  thought  to  be  a    form  of 


disi:asi:s  ok  poultry 


193 


variola,  allied  to  cow  pox  if  not  identical  with  it. 
Careful  study  has  shown,  however,  that  it  is  an  en- 
tirely distinct  disease.  Some  persons  lacking  a  better 
name  have  called  it  warts.  More  recently  it  was  de- 
scribed by  Bollinger  as  epithelioma  eontagiosum  and 
was  by  him  and  others  supposed  to  be  caused  by  the 
low  forms  of  animal  parasites  known  as  psorosperms. 
The  disease  has,  therefore,  been  called  by  some  writers 
eutaneojis psorospermosis.  In  1897,  Sanfelice  published 
a  notable  paper  on  the  subject  from  which  it  appears 


%4i\ 

Fij:.  55.  FifT.  56. 

Fip.  55.  — Inoculated  pi  peon  6  days  after  appearance  of  fir^it  syniptonis. 
Fig-.  56.  ~  Inoculated  pifif-eon  10  days  after  appearance  of  first  symptoms. 

that  chicken  pox  is  caused  by  a  fungus  of  the  group 
now  known  to  scientists  as  blastomycetes. 

Chicken  pox  affects  ordinary  fowls,  turke3's,  pig- 
eons, and,  more  rarely,  geese.  Pigeons,  and  j^oung 
chickens  are  particularly  susceptible.  Grown  fowls 
are  only  occasionally  affected.  The  malady  while 
widespread  and  well  known  is  a  disease  of  warm 
countries,  and  is  usually  found  in  Southern  Europe 
and  the  Gulf  Section  of  the  I'nited  States.  It  is  there 
very  destructive,  attacking  a  large  proportion  of  the 
birds,  and  unless  it  is  early  and  vigorously  treated  it 
causes  much  damage  and  many  deaths. 

Symptoms. —  This  disease  chiefly  affects  the  head 
of  poultry,  and  appears  as  an  eruption  of  round  or 
oblong,  yellow  nodules,  varying  from  the  size  of  ai^in- 


194  DISEASKS    OF    POUI.TKV. 

head  to  that  of  a  pea  or  a  grain  of  corn.  The  largest 
are  found  about  the  beak,  the  nostrils,  the  eyelids, 
and  upon  other  parts  of  the  head  that  are  free  from 
feathers.  They  form  rough,  yellow  masses  ui)on  the 
comb  and  wattles.  The  eruption  may  be  localized 
where  it  first  appears  or  it  may  extend  to  the  feathered 
portions  of  the  body. 

With  pigeons  the  eruption  has  a  tendency  to  become 
diffuse  and  invades  the  neck,  the  lower  surface  of  the 
body,  the  inner  sides  of  the  legs  and  wings,  the  rump 
and  even  the  upper  surface  of  the  wings. 

The  nodules,  which  at  first  have  somewhat  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  warts  offer  seen  upon  the  hands  of 
children,  reach  their  full  development  in  from  five  to 
ten  days.  They  soon  show  a  central  depression,  an 
opening  forms,  or  the  summit  is  rubbed  off  accident- 
ally or  by  the  bird's  beak,  after  which  there  is  a  dis- 
charge of  a  watery,  or,  later,  of  a  thick,  yellowish 
matter  which  soils  the  feathers  and  which  if  abundant 
may  become  foul  and  disagreeable. 

When  the  disease  is  localized,  the  general  health  of 
the  bird  does  not  appear  to  suffer,  and  spontaneous 
recovery  raaj^  occur.  In  this  case  the  nodules  dry  up 
and  form  a  crust  which  falls  off  either  as  a  whole  or 
in  particles.  Generally,  however,  the  disease  extends, 
the  birds  become  emaciated,  the  plumage  is  rough, 
the  strength  is  exhausted,  and  death  results.  In  the 
most  violent  cases,  especially  with  pigeons,  the  erup- 
tion extends  to  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth 
and  nostrils,  the  resulting  inflammation  takes  on  a 
diphtheritic  form,  and  early  death  follows. 

Causation. —  This  disease  has  long  been  recog- 
nized as  contagious  and  to  spread  from  one  bird  to 
another.     If  an  affected  bird  is  introduced  into  a  flock. 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY.  195 

the  roosting  places  become  infected,  and  the  contagion 
is  spread  about  the  premises  and  it  is  not  long, before 
other  birds  become  diseased.  Rivolta  concluded  that 
the  disease  was  not  transmitted  bj-  jilacing  the  infec- 
tious matter  upon  the  sound  skin;  but  Pfeififer  suc- 
ceeded in  causing  the  disease  in  fowls  and  jiigeons  bj' 
inoculating  it  through  punctures  of  the  skin.  San- 
felice  has  repeated  these  experiments  with  the  result 
that  the  disease  was  invariably  caused  in  pigeons  by 
inoculation  into  the  eyelids ;  and  in  the  case  of  ten 
pigeons  with  which  the  infectious  matter  was  simpl}- 
smeared  upon  the  e3'elids,  two  contracted  the  disease. 
It  appears,  therefore,  that  while  an  abrasion  of  the 
surface  or  a  deeper  wound  facilitates  the  entrance  of 
the  contagion  into  the  tissues,  the  parasite  may  in 
certain  cases,  at  least,  penetrate  the  normal  skin. 

Some  have  supposed  that  the  bites  of  fleas  and 
mosquitoes,  others  that  the  punctures  of  ticks  produce 
this  disease.  Undoubtedly  these  act  simply  by  fur- 
nishing an  easy  entrance  for  the  germs.  The  blas- 
toraycetes  or  fungi  appear  to  multipl}'  outside  of  the 
birds'  bodies,  probably  in  the  accumulations  of  excre- 
ment which  exist  in  man}-  poultry -houses.  Some 
moisture  is  necessary  for  the  growth  of  these  germs, 
and  hence  it  is  not  surprising  that  poultry  raisers 
have  observed  that  the  disease  appears  in  those  houses 
which  have  leaky  roofs  or  into  which  water  can  pene- 
trate through  the  walls  and  thus  moisten  the  drop- 
pings. It  is  well  known  that  fungi  are  most  numerous 
in  the  atmosphere  during  wet  weather  while  bacteria 
are  most  numerous  during  dry  times.  This  fact  ma^' 
account  for  the  prevalence  of  sore  head  during  wet 
weather.  It  is,  also,  a  matter  of  observation  that  this 
disease  is  much  more  prevalent  and  fatal  among  late- 


196  DISEASKS    or    POULTRY. 

hatched  chickens  than  anion*^  those  raised  early  in  the 
season.  The  development  and  spread  of  the  con- 
tagion is  influenced,  therefore,  by  the  condition  of  the 
poultry -houses,  by  the  season  of  the  year,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  by  the  weather. 

Tkeatmknt. —  The  prophylactic  or  preventive 
treatment  consists  in  excluding  affected  birds  from 
the  premises  ;  in  keeping  the  poultry -houses  and  pig- 
eon -cotes  clean  and  dry  ;  and  in  hatching  the  chickens 
early  on  farms  where  the  disease  is  troublesome.  Dis- 
infection by  whitewashing  the  houses,  or  spraying 
them  thoroughly  with  a  solution  containing  three  to 
five  i)er  cent  of  carbolic  acid  and  then  opening  them 
for  the  drying  action  of  the  sun  and  air  is  a  val- 
uable means  of  guarding  against  an  outbreak  of  the 
disease. 

The  curative  treatment  consists  of  the  local  appli- 
cation of  those  remedies  which  have  been  found 
efficient  for  the  destruction  of  the  parasitic  blastom}'- 
cetes.  Some  persons  have  been  successful  b}'  feeding 
sulphur,  and  at  the  same  time,  applying  sulphur  oint- 
ment twice  a  da}^  to  the  nodules.  Others  have  cured 
the  affected  birds  by  applying  carbolic  ointment,  or 
glycerine  containing  two  per  cent  of  carbolic  acid. 
Another  treatment  is  to  bathe  the  affected  parts  with 
soap  and  water  in  order  to  soften  the  crusts,  and  after- 
wards apply  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  (blue- 
stone),  a  dram  to  ]2  pint  of  water.  Sulphate  of 
copper  has  been  found  destructive  to  many  kinds  of 
fungi,  and,  therefore,  is  promising  in  this  disease. 
Tincture  of  iodine  has  also  been  recommended,  both 
by  itself  and  mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  carbolic  acid, 
but  this  remedy   is  rather  severe  and  should  only  be 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY.  197 

applied  sparingly  and  after  the  others  mentioned  have 
proved  ineffectual. 

This  local  treatment  should  be  accompanied  by 
cleaninb:  and  disinfection  of  the  houses,  and,  if  possi- 
ble, changing  to  new,  uninfected  runs.  The  feeding 
troughs  and  drinking  vessels  should  be  daily  washed 
with  boiling  water. 

When  the  disea.se  first  appears  in  a  flock  the  affected 
birds  should  be  at  once  isolated  and  treated,  and  the 
effort  made  by  disinfection  to  prevent  the  further  ex- 
tension of  the  contagion. 


19S  DISK  ASKS    OF    POULTRY 


CHAPTER  X. 


DiSKASKS    OK    THK    FKKT    AND    LkGS. 


LEG  WKAKXESS— KinClMATISM  AND  GOVT— SUPERFICIAL 
SOKES— CONNS—DEEP  BKIISES  AND  ABSCESSES— SCA- 
BIES OF   THE   LEGS   AND   FEET,  SCALY   LEGS. 


LKG    WKAKNESS. 

^Vg"  EG  weakness  is  a  term  which  is  popularly 
II  used  to  designate  any  condition  in  which 
/^^r  birds  find  it  difficult  or  impossible  to  sup- 
port themselves  upon  their  legs.  It  may 
develop  in  young  chickens  kept  in  brooders  in  which 
the  heat  is  not  properly  distributed  or  where  there  is 
too  much  bottom  heat,  also  in  those  which  are  kept 
constantly  upon  wooden  floors.  It  is  often  seen  in 
heavy  cockerels,  and  also  occurs  in  flocks  which  have 
been  forced  or  which  are  kept  in  badly  ventilated  and 
damp  houses. 

This  trouble  is  ]-)robably  in  most  cases  of  a  rheu- 
matic nature,  affecting  the  muscles,  tendons  and 
joints.  Frequently  it  consists  only  of  bruises  of  the 
feet;  while,  sometimes,  its  nature  is  obscure  and 
difficult  to  understand. 

Symptoms. —  The  disease  may  come  on  gradually 
or  suddenly.  In  the  former  case,  there  is  first  seen 
an  unsteadiness  in  the  walk  or  lameness  which  l)e- 
comes  more  aggravated,  until  the  bird,  instead  of 
standing  upon   its  feet,  sits  down  upon  its  legs-even 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  199 

when  eatiutj.      In  the  worst  cases,  the  l)irds  are  unaVjle 
even  to  raise  themselves  to  a  standing  position. 

Treatment. —  First,  examine  the  birds  for  bruised 
feet  or  inflammation  of  the  joints  and  if  either  of  these 
conditions  is  found  apply  local  treatment  as  recom- 
mended in  subsequent  paragraphs.  In  all  cases  give 
cooling  food,  such  as  bran,  barle3^  rice,  green  feed, 
skim  milk  or  butter  milk,  and  vegetal)les.  Avoid 
condiments,  meat  and  stimulating  rations  of  all  kinds. 
Give  5  grains  bicarbonate  of  soda  daily  in  the  drink- 
ing water  for  grown  fowls.  See  that  the  heat  is 
properly  applied  in  brooders,  and  that  the  1)irds  have 
dry,  well  aired  quarters. 

RHEUMATISM    AND    GOUT. 

All  species  of  fowls  and  especially  chickens  are  sub- 
ject to  rheumatic  affections.  The  trouble  begins  with 
spasmodic  jerking  of  the  legs,  and  is  followed  by 
lameness,  indisposition  to  remain  standing,  painful 
joints  and  refusal  to  walk.  The  feet  and  the  next 
joint  above  (tibio -tarsal),  are  most  frequently  affected. 
After  a  time  small  swellings  appear  iipon  the  sides  of 
these  joints,  which  are  at  first  soft,  and  somewhat 
painful,  but  gradually  become  more  firm  Until  they 
feel  like  enlargements  of  the  bones.  Sometimes  these 
swellings  ulcerate,  in  which  case  the  sores  appear  red, 
irregular  in  outline  and  bleeding.  A  yellowish  flaky 
or  stringy  pus  partly  fills  the  sore  and  when  this  is  re- 
moved the  naked  tendons,  bones  or  joints  may  some- 
times be  seen.  The  cavities  of  the  joints  are  opened 
to  the  air,  fistulas  develop  and  death  of  the  bone  oc- 
curs. The  disease  is  chronic  in  its  development  and 
the  advanced  stages  are,  therefore,  generally  seen  in 
old  birds.  The  affected  birds  may  live  a  long  time 
even  when  the  disease  has  progressed  to  the  extreme 


200  DISKASES    OF    POULTRY. 

degree  described  above.  Thej^  lose  flesh,  however, 
their  ]^hiniage  becomes  rough  and  dull,  diarrhea  sets 
in  and  death  occurs  from  exhaustion. 

Tre.\tmknt. —  As  rheumatism  is  usually  caused  by 
e.xposure  to  cold  and  dampness,  the  development  of 
the  disease  in  one  or  more  fowls  of  a  flock  should  be 
a  warning  to  im])rove  the  ventilation  and  drainage  of 
the  houses.  The  buildings  where  the  fowls  live  and 
roost  should  1)e  thoroughly  dry,  free  from  draughts,  yet 
well  ventilated,  and  not  too  cold.  With  proper  atten- 
tion to  these  sanitary  arrangements  the  disease  should 
be  prevented.  Affected  lairds  should  have  frequent 
change  of  ration  with  plenty  of  green  feed.  Begin 
treatment  with  a  dose  of  Kpsom  salts  20  to  30  grains. 
The  following  day  add  30  to  40  grains  of  bicarbonate 
of  soda  (baking  soda)  to  the  quart  of  drinking  water, 
and  give  2  or  3  grains  of  salicj^lic  acid  twice  a  day. 
Apply  camphorated  or  carbolic  ointment  to  the  af- 
fected joints.  The  birds  which  are  seriously  affected 
would  be  better  killed  than  treated,  and  the  main  re- 
liance must  be  under  any  circumstances  in  prevention 
by  securing  proper  sanitary  conditions. 

DISE.\SKS    OF    THE    FEET. 

The  feet  of  poultry  are  very  subject  to  diseases 
which  result  from  pricks,  cuts,  bruises,  and  other 
injuries.  Although  the  weight  of  birds  is  small  com- 
l^ared  with  that  of  most  other  domesticated  animals, 
the  fact  that  their  nights  are  usually  spent  upon 
perches,  that  in  flying  from  these  perches  they  often 
alight  ver}'^  heavily,  and  that  they  scratch  very  vigor- 
ousl}'  in  searching  for  their  food,  is  a  sufficient  expla- 
nation of  their  peculiar  liability  to  this  class  of  in- 
juries. It  is  convenient  for  our  purpose  to  divide  the 
diseases  of  the  feet,  which  result  from  injuries,  into 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY 


201 


atarsus;  a,  digits. 


202  DISKASES    OF    POULTRY. 

three  classes;   viz.,1,   superficial   sores;   2,  corns;   3, 
deep  bruises  and  abscesses. 

supj:ri"icial  soki:s. 
f  .Ibrasioiis,  Pricks,  Cuts,  Cracks,  and  Fissures.) 
Such  injuries  are  not  very  serious,  ])ut  if  the  bird  is 
seen  to  be  latne,  an-.l  particularl}'  if  there  is  any  heat 
or  swellinj^:  a])Out  the  toes  or  foot,  suitable  measures 
should  be  taken  to  make  the  bird  comfortable  and  pre- 
vent the  development  of  a  more  dangerous  condition. 
If  there  is  much  inflammation  indicated  by  heat  and 
swelling,  hold  the  foot  in  water  almost  as  warm  as 
the  hand  can  bear  for  half  an  hour,  adding  hot  water 
from  time  to  time  to  keep  up  the  temperature.  Before 
the  l)ird  is  released  apply  a  small  quantitj^  of  boric 
acid  ointment  (boric  acid  1  part,  vaseline  5  parts  ) 
to  the  injured  part.  This  ointment  should  also  be 
applied  to  abrasions,  cuts,  and  cracks  where  the  hot 
water  treatment  is  unnecessar}-,  as  it  ]:)romotcs  ra})id 
healing.  Confine  the  bird  to  a  yard  covered  with  soft 
earth  or  j'oung  grass  for  a  few  daj-s  and  do  not  allow 
it  to  roost  upon  a  perch  until  its  feet  are  well. 

CORNS. 

The  condition  known  as  corns  is  an  inflammation 
and  thickening  of  the  skin  on  the  under  surface  of  tlie 
foot,  the  result  of  prolonged  pressure,  irritation,  and 
bruises.  Corns  are  generally  caused  b}'  too  small  or 
too  narrow  perches  which  compel  the  fowls  to  grasp 
them  tightl}'  in  order  to  maintain  their  position.  This 
firm  gras])  continued  night  after  night  affects  the  cir- 
culation of  the  part  of  the  foot  that  comes  in  closest 
contact  with  the  perch.  More  or  less  irritation  and 
inflammation  is  set  up,  which  leads  to  multiplication 
and  enlargement  of  the  cells  of  the  part,  and  results 
in    swelling  and  thickening  of  the    skin.     A   similar 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  203 

condition  may  l^e  caused  by  heavy  birds  flying  from 
their  perches  and  alighting  upon  a  stony  surface  or 
hard  floor. 

Suitable  precautions  should  be  adopted  to  prevent 
the  development  of  corns.  The  perches  should  be 
broad  and  flat,  they  should  be  of  a  proper  height,  and 
the  floor  upon  which  the  birds  alight  should  be  cov- 
ered with  earth  or  sand  so  the  feet  will  not  be  bruised. 
The  affected  birds  should  be  treated  by  paring  off  the 
thickened  epidermis,  without  causing  bleeding,  and 
applying  boric  acid  ointment  (see  above),  or  painting 
the  part  with  tincture  of  iodine. 

DEEP    BRUISES    AND    ABSCESSES. 

( Binnblefoot  ) 

This  is  an  aggravation  of  the  condition  known  as 
corns.  It  is  seen  in  those  cases  where  the  irritation 
and  bruising  is  most  severe  or  prolonged.  The  af- 
fected part  is  hot,  painful,  and  more  or  less  swollen. 
Sometimes  an  abscess  has  formed,  or  in  older  cases 
this  abscess  may  have  broken  and  left  a  suppurating 
sore.  In  the  most  severe  cases  the  joints  may  be  in- 
flamed, and  maj'  even  be  penetrated  by  the  pus  chan- 
nels which  have  formed  from  the  abscesses. 

As  treatment  employ  the  preventive  measures  al  - 
ready  mentioned  for  corns  and  other  injuries  to  the 
feet.  Soak  the  feet  in  warm  water  for  a  half  hour 
twice  a  daj^  and  poultice  until  the  inflammation  is 
reduced.  If  an  abscess  in  the  sole  is  indicated  b}^  a 
soft,  fluctuating  swelling  of  the  part,  it  should  be 
opened  with  a  sharp  knife.  After  the  poulticing  is 
completed  apply  boric  acid  ointment  and  protect  the 
feet  with  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth.  If  the  joints  have 
become  affected,  and  particularly  if  these  communicate 
with  the  pus  channels  and  are  the  seat  of  suppuration, 


204 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY 


the  l)ird  should  l)e  killed,  as  its  treatment  would  be 
unprofitable,  and  its  entire  recovery  would  not  be 
probable. 

SCAHIHS    OF    THK    LKGS    AND    FKET — SCALY    LEGS. 

Symptoms. —  In  scabies  of  the  legs,  the  epidermic 
scales  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  legs  and  upon  the 
ujiper  surface  of  the  foot,  become 
loosened  and  elevated  bj-  the  forma- 
tion of  a  whitish  crust  or  compacted 
powdery  substance  beneath  them. 
The  raising  of  these  scales  gives  the 
leg  a  rough  and  enlarged  appearance 
which  is  easily  recognized  and  is  verj- 
characteristic. 

This  form  of  sca1)ies  begins  in  the 
clefts  between  the  toes  and  runs  a 
very  slow  course.  The  elevation  of 
the  epidermic  scales  is  very  gradual. 
At  first  there  is  observed  onl}^  a 
''^n\fied^'Voo"dram-  sHght  thickening  of  these  scales,  and 
roughness,  but  the  continued  forma- 
tion of  the  white,  powdery  crust  aggravates  this  con- 
dition, causes  the  scales  to  become  detached  and  to 
assume  a  position  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  surface. 
The  disea.se  extends  up  the  leg  and  also  along  the  toes 
until  the  whole  shank  and  foot  become  involved.  The 
two  legs  are  usuall}'  affected  at  the  same  time  and  to 
about  the  same  degree. 

Unless  treated  the  disease  continues  to  progress,  the 
epidermic  scales  are  detached,  the  joints  become  af- 
fected and  the  birds  walk  with  difficulty.  In  the  most 
severe  cases  a  joint  or  even  an  entire  toe  may  become 
detached,  the  birds  lose  flesh  and  die  from  exhaustion. 
There  appears  to  l)e  only  a  moderate  degree  of  itching. 


Fip. 

miitaii: 
ilial 
nia>.' 
eters 


Sairopli- 
A    the    fowl; 


DISEASKS    OK    POUI.TKV. 


205 


The  birds  occasionally  peck  at  or  scratch  the  affected 
parts  with  the  beak.  They  do  this  most  frequently 
at  night  and  in  warm  weather. 

Causation.- Scaly  legs  is  a  form    of   scabies   or 
mange  caused    by  the    mite    known  as    the  Sarcoptes 
mutans.     It  ,s  a  strictly  contagious  disease  although 
It  does  not  spread  rapidly  from  bird  to  bird,  and  there 
may  be  only  a  few  noticeably  affected  birds  in  a  flock. 
The   Asiatic    breeds   are  most 
susceptible    to    it,    and    many 
birds,    even   of    these    breeds, 
resist  the  attacks  of  the  mites, 
and  never  show  any  symptoms. 
It  attacks    quite  a    variety   of 
birds— fowls,    turkeys,  pheas- 
ants,    partridges      and      cage 
birds,    but    has    not  been  ob- 
served in  ducks  and  geese.    In 
the  production  of   scaly  legs, 
the  Sarcoptes  muians  penetrates 
beneath    the  epidermic    scales  h'^^'V      . •^...«.., 

.  '  sLdieb    dorsal  surface;    magnified   100 

on  the  upper  surface  of  the  '*'^"^«*^''s- 
foot  and  the  front  of  the  shank,  and  bv  burrowing  there 
sets  up  an  irritation  which  leads  to  a  multiplication  of 
the  cells  of  the  part,  and  an  exudation  of  serum  It 
IS  by  the  union  of  these  two  products  that  the  white 
powdery  crust  is  formed,  which  raises  the  epidermic 
scales  from  their  normal  position.  If  the  crusts  are 
removed  and  the  under  surface  examined  with  a  lens 
they  are  found  to  contain  a  large  number  of  depres- 
sions in  each  of  which  a  female,  egg-containing  Sar- 
copt  IS  lodged.  The  larva-,  males  and  younger  females 
are  found  wandering  beneath  the  crusts.  The  crust 
contains  so  many  cavities  that   it   has   very  much  the 


Fier.  59. 


!06 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY. 


appearance  of  dried  l>read.  As  the  crust  thickens  by 
deposits  on  the  inner  surface,  the  cavities  first  formed 
become  smaller  l)y  the  drying  of  the  walls  surround- 
ing them,  and  the  Sarcopt  abandons  this  location  for 
a  jiosition  nearer  the  flesh,  where  there  is  more  mois- 
ture. The  mites  are,  there- 
fore, only  found  on  the  in- 
ner surface  of  the  crust, 
although  the  cavities  or 
honey  -combed  appearance 
exists  throughout  the 
whole  substance. 

T  R  E  .\  T  M  E  N  T. — When 
this  disease  is  first  observed 
in  a  flock,  prompt  and 
energetic  measures  should 
be  adopted  to  eradicate  it. 
The  affected  birds  should 
be  isolated  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  the  contagion. 
The  houses  which  they 
have  occupied  should  be 
thoroughh'  cleaned.  The 
roosts  and  other  woodwork 
should  be  scalded  with 
boiling  water  or  covered 
with  carbolated  lime  wash. 
The  treatment  of  the  af- 
fected birds  is  the  same  as 
with  sca])ies  of  the  body, 
with  the  single  exception  that  the  loosened  scales  must 
be  removed  in  order  to  bring  the  remedy  in  contact 
with  the  mites.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  the  legs 
should  be  soaked  for  a  sufficient   time  in  warm  water 


60.— Scabies     of 
(scaly  leps). 


DISEASES    OF    POULTKV.  207 

to  which  some  soaji  has  been  added.  When  thorongh- 
ly  softened  the  loose  scales  may  be  removed  without 
causing  bleeding.  Or,  a  coating  of  soft  soaji  maj'  l)e 
applied  to  the  affected  ]:)arts,  leaving  it  to  act  for  from 
twelve  to  twenty -four  hours.  The  legs  are  then  placed 
in  warm  water  and  the  scales  softened  and  removed  by 
gentle  rubbing  and  traction.  After  this  has  been  done 
the  legs  are  dried  and  treated  with  a  good  coat  of 
Helmerich's  ointment,  creolin  ointment  (1  to  lo), 
carbolic  ointment  (l  to  lO),  or  balsam  of  Peru.  The 
latter  ma}^  be  applied  daily  for  three  or  four  days,  and 
is  better  ada])ted  than  the  other  remedies  to  the  treat- 
ment of  young  or  delicate  birds,  since  it  is  equally 
efficacious  in  destroying  the  mites  and  has  little  if  anj- 
injurious  effect  u])on  the  birds.  The  disease  is  not 
a  difficult  one  to  cure  if  the  preliminary  treatment  is 
thorough  and  the  loose  scales  and  crusts  are  all  re- 
moved. 


208  DISICASItS    OF    POUI.TKY. 


CHAPTHR  XI. 


Infectious    Diseasks    Having    a    Tkndkncy    to 
AffivCT  Mokk  than  One  Set  of  Organs. 


TUBEKCCLOSI.S--DIPHTHHKIA,        niPHTHKKlTIC       KOUP— INFEC- 
TlOr.S    I.El'K.KMIA       1"()\VI.   CHOLKKA. 


TrBF;RCUI.OSIS. 

/^^^HKRE  is  frequent  mention  in  medical  litera- 
/  \  ture  of  tuberculosis  in  birds.  In  Euroi)e 
^^i^  this  disease  appears  to  be  very  common,  and 
it  is  by  no  means  rare  in  the  laiited  States,  if 
the  statements  of  our  professional  men  are  to  be 
accepted.  The  observations  recorded  previous  to 
1884,  and  those  made  since  that  time,  which  are  not 
based  u])on  the  demonstration  of  the  Bacillus  tuboxu- 
losis,  can  not  be  accepted  as  perfectly  reliable.  There 
are  a  numlier  of  diseases  in  which  the  symptoms  and 
ai)pearances  of  the  diseased  organs  are  so  nearl}-  alike 
that  a  microscopical  examination  must  be  made  before 
their  nature  can  be  determined.  The  existence  of 
tuberculosis  is  determined  by  the  presence  of  the  germ 
which  produces  it.  Consequently,  it  is  only  since  the 
characters  of  this  germ  were  made  known  that  we 
have  been  able  to  make  a  reliable  diagnosis  in  sus- 
pected cases.  Koch  demonstrated  beyond  doubt  the 
occurrence  of  tuberculosis  in  fowls,  and  observed  that 
the  Ijacilli  were  extraordinarily  abundant  in  the  nod- 


DISKASKS    OK    POULTRY.  209 

iiles  of  the  intestines  and  liver,  and,  also,  in  the  con- 
tents of  the  intestines. 

Sutton  ol)served  tuberculosis  in  j^^rain -eating?  birds 
of  various  parts  of  Euglaud  and  states  that  "the 
occurrence  of  tui)ercul()sis  in  these  places  may  be  re- 
garded as  showing  that  it  is  probably  met  with  in 
most  i)arts  of  England." 

Nocard,  a   French  veterinarian,  says:    "Tubercu- 


Fig-.  61.— Tubercular  tumor  of  the  winj,'. 

losis  is  a  frequent  disease  with  birds  of  the  poultry - 
yard.  It  occurs  with  them  in  an  epidemic  form.  It 
attacks  fowls,  pheasants,  ])igeons,  turkeys,  peacocks, 
guinea  fowls,  etc.,  and  it  may  even  l)e  produced  in 
small  birds  experimentally."  In  600  autopsies  of 
fowls  made  by  Zuern,  presumal)ly  in  Germany,  sixty - 
two,  or  ten  per  cent,  were  found  tuberculous. 

In  the  cases  reported  in  the  United  Slates  there 
ap])ears  to  have  ])een  very  few  instances  in  which  the 
diagnosis  was  confirmed  by  bacteriological  e.xamina- 
tion  and  tl:e  demonstration  of  the  liacillus. 

Symptoms. —  The  sym]itoms  wliich  are  observed  in 
the  tuberculosis  of  birds  are  common  to  other  diseases, 
and,  therefore,  while  they  are  valuable  as  an  indication 
of  the  nature  of  the  disease,  they  are  not  sufficient  to 
permit  an  absolutely  relial)le  conclusion  to  be  reached. 
There    is    rapid    and     progressive    emaciation,    made 


210  DISKASFS    Ol'     I'ori.TKV. 

apparent  liy  the  loss  of  weit^ht,  wasting:  of  the 
ransclcs,  and  prominence  of  the  ])ones.  The  comb 
becomes  pale,  llie  bird  loses  its  bright,  animated  ex- 
pression, and  in  the  later  stages  becomes  quite  dull 
and  sleepy.  At  this  time  a  persistent  diarrhea  appears 
which  increases  in  intensit}'  until  tlie  subject  dies  from 
exhaustion. 

The  symptoms  just  enumerated  are  those  observed 
when  the  disease  is  confined  to  the  internal  organs. 
It  often  affects  the  joints  and  bones,  when  it  is  re- 
vealed by  lameness,  swellings  of  the  joints  and  de- 
formities of  the  bones.  Occasionally  ulcers  form,  in 
the  pus  of  which  many  bacilli  are  found. 

The  skin  and  external  mucous  membranes  are 
frequently  affected  with  ]:)arrots  Init  more  rarely  with 
other  birds.  There  are  first  seen  small  grajash  eleva- 
tions which  unite  and  form  patches.  Thick  crusts 
form  on  these  patches,  becoming  hard  externally  and 
soft  and  checsj^  next  to  tissues.  If  these  crusts  are 
removed  a  red  granular  surface  is  exposed.  Some- 
times the  crusts,  particularly  near  the  eye  or  mouth, 
become  horny  and  develop  into  excrescences  an  inch 
or  more  in  length. 

Appearance  of  thk  Organs. —  In  poultry  and 
pheasants  the  abdominal  viscera  are  the  most  common 
seat  of  the  disease.  The  liver  is  most  frequently  and 
most  severely  affected.  The  spleen  is  also  very  often 
attacked. 

These  organs  are  enlarged  and  more  or  less  filled 
with  tubercles  which  may  vary  in  size  from  small 
whitish  or  grayish  points,  to  nodules  the  size  of  a  pea, 
or  to  tumors  the  size  of  a  walnut  which  are  fibrous, 
firm  and  often  softened  at  the  center.  The  tubercles 
mav  also  be  hard  and  calcareous.     The  liver  is  more 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRV. 


211 


friable  than  in   health,  and   ruptures   leading  to   fatal 
hemorrhages  may  occur. 

The     peritoneum,    or     serous     membrane    of     the 

abdominal  cavity,  may   be  covered  with  tubercles  the 

size  of  a  pin  head  or  smaller;   and   when   this  occurs 

the  abdomen  usually  contains  more  or  less  liquid. 

The  intestinal  walls  are  often  thickened  or  ulcerated, 

and  contain  tuber- 
cles of  various 
sizes.  Sometimes 
these  are  so  large 
that  they  diminish 
the  caliber  of  the 
tube  or  entirely  ob- 
struct it.  The  soft- 
ening and  breaking 
down  of  the  tuber- 
cles on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  in- 
testine cause  the 
ulcerations  which 
are  commonly  seen  in  this  disease,  and  from  which 
the  bacilli  escape  in  incalculable  numbers. 

The  abdominal  lymphatic  glands  ma\'  he  invaded 
by  the  tubercular  process  and  enlarged  to  the  size  of 
an  egg. 

Small  tubercles,  the  size  of  a  pin  head  or  less,  and 
sometimes  larger  tubercular  masses,  are  occasionally 
found  in  the  lungs,  air-sacs,  heart  and  pericardium, 
but  these  organs  are  more  rarely  affected  than  are 
those  situated  in  the  abdominal  region. 

Generalized  tuberculosis  is  not  uncommon  and  in 
this  form  of  the  disease   most   or   all  of  the  organs  of 


Fig'.  62. — Tubercular  tumor  of  the  head. 


212 


DISHASKS    OF    POULTRY. 


the  body  are  affected — the  tubercles  beiiii^  found  even 
in  the  interior  of  the  bones. 

The  joints  are  fretiuently  the  seat  of  tubercular  in- 
flammation leading  to  swelling,  abscesses,  ulcers, 
fistulas  and  loss  of 
movement.  Swellings, 
ulcers,  and  cheesy 
formations  are  some- 
times seen  about  the 
mouth,  eyes  and  nose, 
and  horny  excrescences 
may  ai:)pear  upon  the 
skin  of  the  head. 
These  external  mani- 
festations are  the  rule 
with  i)arrots. 

Cause  and  Na- 
ture.—  The  tubercu- 
losis of  birds,  like  that 
of  mankind,  is  caused 
by  a  l)acillus.  The 
bacillus  of  birds  in  a 
general  way  resembles 
that  of  man,  but  is 
larger,   more    vigorous 

and    hard}',    and    grows    Fig.  63.— Section  of  liver  of  bird  affected 

better   outside   of    the  with  tuberculosis, 

body.  The  disease  is  strictly  contagious,  and 
usually  appears  in  a  flock  as  a  consequence  of  brin;- 
ing  in  new  birds.  That  is,  it  results  from  contagion 
carried  by  birds  from  other  diseased  flocks. 

Many  outl)reaks  have  been  attributed  to  infection 
from  eating  the  sputum  of  persons  affected  with  co:i- 
sumjnion.     The   ]:)Ossibility  of  such   infection  is  ad- 


DISKASES    OF    POULTRY 


213 


luiUcd  1)3'  some  authorities  and  denied  by  others.  It 
is  certain  that  poultry  and  pigeons  are  not  easily  in- 
fected experimentally  with  the  tuberculosis  of  people, 
cattle  and  other  animals  which  are  classed  together  as 
mammals.  This  may  sometimes  be  accomplished; 
but  after  one  bird  is  infected  in  this  way  it  is  equally 
difficult  to  transmit  the  disease  from  this  bird  to  other 


Fi;jr.  64.— Growth  ol  iioru  from  region  of  head  affected  with  tuberculosis. 

birds.  It  appears,  therefore,  out  of  the  question  to 
produce  a  rapidly  spreading  outbreak  of  disease 
among  fowls  or  pigeons  ])y  the  use  of  human  virus. 

The  bird  or  avian  tuberculosis  spreads  rapidly  from 
bird  to  bird  and  is  easil}^  transmitted  experimentally 
to  birds,  but  it  has  little  effect  upon  most  mammals 
which  are  very  susceptible  to  human  tuberculosis. 
There  is,  consequently,  a  marked  difference  between 
avian  and  mammalian  tuberculosis.  The  disease  in 
the  two  cases  does  not  appear  to  be  absolutely 
distinct,  but  should  rather  be  regarded  as  two  varieties 
of  the  same  malady'.  These  varieties  have  been  de- 
veloped because  the  bacilli  have  grown  for  a  long 
series  of  years  under  different  conditions.  They  may 
still  possibly  be  changed  from  mammalian   to   avian 


214  DISEASES    OK    POULTRY. 

and  from  avian  to  nianimalian,  hut  such  a  cliange cer- 
tainly would  reciuire  much  time  aud  verj-  favorable 
conditions. 

A  very  interesting  fact  is  that  parrots  are  usually 
affected  with  the  mammalian  form  of  tuberculosis. 
The  disease  is  quite  frequently  seen  in  these  birds  and 
it  shows  a  great  cendency  to  develop  externallj'.  It 
most  commonly  affects  the  borders  of  the  eyes  and 
mouth,  the  skin  and  the  joints  of  the  feet.  There  are 
at  first  small  swellings,  some  of  which  soften,  dis- 
charge their  contents  and  become  ulcers;  others  re- 
main hard  and  continue  to  enlarge,  while  still  others 
are  covered  b}'  a  horny  growth  of  considerable  thick- 
ness. When  the  feet  are  affected  the  joints  swell  and 
the  bones  are  more  or  less  deformed,  leading  many 
who  are  not  well  informed  on  the  subject  to  consider 
the  disease  as  simple  gout. 

It  has  been  shown  b}^  experiments  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  infect  fowls  and  pigeons  by  inoculation 
from  parrots,  but  ral)bits,  guinea  pigs  and  dogs  read- 
ily contract  the  disease  by  such  inoculation.  It  is 
concluded  from  the  various  facts  which  have  been  re- 
corded, that  the  tuberculosis  of  parrots  is  identical 
with  tuberculosis  or  consumption  in  man  ;  that  parrots 
are  infected  from  diseased  people  and  may  in  turn  in- 
fect other  people.  The  germs  of  the  disease  are 
found  in  enormous  numbers  in  the  discharge  from  the 
ulcers,  in  the  secretion  of  the  nasal  passages  and  often 
in  the  excrement.  The  cages  are  soiled  with  these 
different  excretions,  which  soon  become  dry,  are  re- 
duced to  dust  and  then  disseminated  through  the  air 
of  the  apartment  bj'  the  f^a]iping  of  the  bird's  wings. 
People  breathing  this  atmosphere  take  the  germs  into 
their  lungs  and  in  that  waj^  become  infected.     Other 


DISICASKS    OF    POUI/rKV. 


215 


species  of  cage  birds  may  contract  human  tul)erculosis 
and  distribute  it  in  the  same  manner. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  poultry  and  pigeons  do  not 
readily  contract  tul)erculosis  from  persons,  it  seems 
probable  that  mankind  is  in  no  great  danger  of  be- 
coming infected  from  these  birds.     It  is  well  to  use 

reasonable  precau- 
tions, however, 
when  the  disease  is 
detected  in  the 
poultry-yard  or 
pigeon -cote,  as 
there  are  some 
cases  recorded 
where  it  is  believed 
that  flocks  of  poul- 
try have  been  in- 
fected by  eating 
the  sjiutum  of  hu- 
man consumptives. 
When  a  bird  is 
found  to  ])e diseased 

Vig.  o5.— Tuberculosis  of  the  foot  (parrot).        it  should  ,  of  COUrSC, 

be  safely  disposed  of  at  once ;  but  there  is  no  reason 
for  the  alarm  and  panic  which  have  been  exhil^ited  by 
some  owners  of  flocks  supposed  to  be  affected. 

Di.\GNOSiS. —  As  there  are  a  number  of  different 
conditions  found  in  birds  which  simulate  tuberculosis, 
it  is  well,  when  the  disease  is  suspected,  to  have  its 
identity  confirmed  by  an  expert.  A  microscopical 
examination  showing  the  presence  of  the  Bbacilhis 
tiibcrriilosis  \^  i\\Q  most  reliable  and  satisfactory  evi- 
dence. According  to  Nocard,  the  tuberculin  test  may 
be  used   as  with  cattle  or  other  animals.     The  dose 


216  DISEASES    OF    POULTRY. 

stateil  ])>'  liim  is  5  to  in  ceiitij^ranm  for  fowls,  piq^eons 
and  pheasants,  and  10  to  10  cenlig^ranis  for  geese, 
turkeys  and  peacocks. 

Treatment. —  The  eradication  of  tuberculosis  in 
birds  from  an  infected  premises  can  only  be  attempted 
with  a  fair  prospect  of  success  when  all  the  birds  are 
sacrificed.  Any  individuals  that  are  preserved  are 
liable  to  have  ulcerations  of  the  intestines,  from  which 
the  bacilli  are  constantly  distributed.  There  should, 
consequenth',  be  no  attemj^t  to  save  any  birds  from  an 
infected  flock. 

When  the  birds  are  all  killed  and  disposed  of  by 
burning  or  deeply  burying,  the  premises  should  be 
carefullj'  disinfected.  The  manure  should  be  carefully 
scraped  and  swept  together  and  saturated  with  a  five- 
per-cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  mixed  with  lime. 
The  floors  and  woodwork  of  the  houses  should  be 
washed  with  boiling  water  or  with  a  hot  solution  of 
carbolic  acid.  The  feeding  troughs,  drinking  vessels 
and  nests  should  be  treated  in  the  same  manner.  Any 
yards  used  for  penning  birds  should  be  sprinkled  with 
the  carbolic  acid  solution. 

After  the  cleaning  and  disinfection  is  accomplished 
the  premises  should  be  opened  to  the  sun  and  air  for  a 
month  if  possible  before  new  birds  are  introduced.  It 
is  then  a  good  plan  to  cover  the  walls  and  roosts  with 
lime  wash,  to  which  4  ounces  of  crude  carbolic 
acid  to  the  gallon  has  been  added,  and  ventilate  a  few 
daj'S  longer  before  the  houses  are  used.  Those  who 
scrupulously  enforce  these  measures  may  be  reason- 
ably certain  that  the  contagion  will  be  destroyed  and 
that  the  new  flock  may  be  safely  introduced. 

DIPHTHERIA,    DIPHTHERITIC    ROUP. 

Among  the  several   diseases  which  have  been  con- 


DISK  ASKS    OK    POULTRY.  217 

founded  toi^ether  l)}-  modern  writers  under  the  general 
name  of  rouj),  one  of  the  most  prevalent  and  destruc- 
tive is  the  diphtheria  of  l)irds,  or  diphtheritic  roup. 
While  some  writers  are  of  the  opinion  that  contagious 
catarrh  and  diphtheria  are  caused  by  the  same  species 
of  bacillus,  differing  only  in  the  degree  of  virulence, 
the  fact  that  in  extensive  outbreaks  of  the  former 
disease  there  are  apparently  no  diphtheritic  membranes 
to  be  found,  bears  strongly  against  this  theory  and 
makes  it  desirable,  at  least  for  the  present,  to  describe 
these  different  forms  of  disease  separately. 

Tlie  di])htheria  of  birds  is  a  contagious  disease 
which  first  affects  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal 
passages,  the  eyes,  the  mouth,  the  pharynx  and 
larynx  an:l  which  may  extend  to  the  trachea,  the 
bronchi,  the  air -sacs,  the  intestines  and  perhaps  to 
other  abdominal  organs.  The  disease  is  characterized 
by  a  grayish -3^ellow  filirinous  exudate,  called  a /<?/«' 
membrane,  which  forms  upon  the  mucous  surface  of 
the  parts  mentioned.  This  exudate  is  intimately 
attached  to  the  living  tissues,  so  that  when  it  is 
forcibly  removed  a  raw,  bleeding  surface  may  be  left. 
Its  formation  may  be  so  abundant  as  to  obstruct  the 
passages  through  which  the  air  is  drawn  into  the 
lungs.  The  apjiearance  of  the  diseased  parts  bears  a 
close  resemblance  to  what  is  seen  in  human  diphtheria, 
but  the  bacillus  which  is  believed  to  cause  avian 
diphtheria  is  quite  distinct  from  that  which  causes  the 
disease  in  children,  and  it  is,  therefore,  concluded  that 
the  diphtheria  of  mankind  and  that  of  birds  are 
entirely  different  diseases.  There  are  some  striking 
cases  on  record,  however,  which  indicate  that  the 
diphtheria  of  fowls  may  be  communicated  to  children 
in  some  instances  and  cause  a  serious  or  even  fatal 


218 


DISKASHS    OF    POULTRY. 


(li]ilitlieritic  sore  throat.  On  the  other  hand  it  is 
asserted  that  the  diphtheria  of  children  is  sometimes 
communicated  to  birds,  and  that  the  contagion  may 
be  thus  preserved  for  a  considerable  time  and  again 
transmitted  to  children.  The  avian  diphtheria  affects 
the  common  fowl,  turkeys,  ducks,  pea-fowls,  pigeons, 
pheasants  and  probably  many  other 
varieties  of  birds.  In  some  out- 
breaks, it  is  very  acute,  progresses 
with  great  rapidity,  and  destroys 
most  of  the  birds  attacked. 

Symptoms. —  When  first  attacked, 
the  affected  birds  present  the  symp- 
toms of  common  cold  or  catarrh. 
There  is  a  watery  secretion  from  the 
nostrils  and  often  from  the  e3-es,  with 
general  weakness  and  prostration 
greater  than  would  be  expected  from 
simple  catarrh.  The  birds  sit  with 
the  back  arched,  the  head  and  neck 
drawn  down  towards  the  bodv,  the     Fifj.  w..- Floor   of 

."        .  tlie     nioiilU     sliowiiitr 

plumage  roughened  ;   the  respiration  nn-  dipiitiicritic  exu- 

"  ,  ,  ..       date  over  tlie  loiiu'ue. 

IS  more  or  less  obstructed,  rapid, 
audible  and  strident;  the  vision  is  impaired  and 
swallowing  is  difficult.  There  is  frequent  shaking  of 
the  head,  sneezing  and  expectoration  of  mucous  secre- 
tions. If  the  mouth  is  examined  at  this  early  period 
the  tongue  is  found  to  be  pale,  while  small  grayish 
spots,  shaded  with  black,  and  .slightly  projecting 
above  the  surface  are  seen  along  the  border,  the  upper 
surface  or  at  the  base. 

The  following  day  the  condition  is  aggravated,  the 
temperature  is  several  degrees  above  the  normal,  the 
appetite  has  disappeared,  and  there  is  diarrhea  with 


DISKASKS    OK    POULTRY.  219 

greenish  or  yellowish  evacuations.  From  the  open 
beak  there  escapes  a  thick,  stringy,  grayish  mucus. 
The  eyes  are  unnaturally  dilated,  projecting  and 
partly  covered  with  the  thick  secretion  which  has 
accumulated  between  the  lids.  The  nostrils  are  ob- 
structed by  the  thickened  and  dried  secretion.  Walk- 
ing is  irregular  and  difficult.  The  mucous  membrane 
of  the  mouth  and  pharynx  is  red,  congested,  inflamed 
and  shows  numerous  dark  red  elevations  covered  with 
fibrinous  exudate.  The  patches  on  the  tongue  have 
increased  in  size,  they  are  gray  in  color,  dried  along 
the  edges  of  the  tongue  but  soft  and  flattened  upon  its 
upper  surface  and  are  covered  with  membranous 
deposits.     The  voice  often  fails. 

The  third,  fourth  or  fifth  day,  the  whole  interior  of 
the  mouth  may  be  covered  with  false  membranes  ob- 
structing almost  completely  the  openings  of  the 
pharynx  and  larynx.  Swallowing  is  very  difficult  or 
impossible  and  breathing  is  liable  to  be  arrested  at 
any  time.  The  false  membrane  first  appears  as  a 
thin  yellowish  or  grayish  layer  and  becomes  thicker 
as  the  disease  advances.  With  pigeons,  it  is  cheesy 
(caseous)  and  easily  detached,  while  with  fowls  it  is 
more  resistant,  fibrous,  and  can  only  be  removed  with 
some  force,  generally  leaving  a  raw,  bleeding  or 
ulcerated  surface.  Later,  this  membrane  becomes 
irregular  and  rough  on  the  surface,  dry,  fissured  and 
of  a  brownish  color.  The  decomposition  of  the 
membranes  at  this  period  gives  the  breath  a  verj^ 
m  irked  and  disagreeai)le  odor  of  decomi)osition.  At 
this  time  it  may  be  removed  without  causing  bleeding, 
as  the  surface  beneath  has  partly  or  entirely  healed. 

In  certain  cases  the  false  membranes  form  in  the 
trachea  and  extend  to  the  lungs   and  air -sacs.     There 


220  niSKASKS    OF    POn.TRY. 

is  then  ^reat  difficulty  of  l)rc'atliin,ir.  with  paiilin.2r  and 
wheczinj^.  The  l)ird  is  conii)eIk'd  to  extend  its  neck 
and  open  its  mouth  to  admit  the  air.  The  false  mem- 
branes may  also  form  in  the  (csophatj^us  and  intestines. 
This  complication  is  particularly  lia])le  to  occur  with 
turkeys  and  waterfowls  and  is  indicated  by  aggrava- 
tion of  the  general  sym])toms  with  copious  diarrhea 
and  the  escape  of  blood  with  the  evacuations. 

The  membrane  lining  the  nasal  passages  is  often 
severely  affected.  This  is  usuall}-  due  to  an  exten- 
sion of  the  diphtheritic  process  by  way  of  the  fissure 
of  the  palate.  By  the  accumulation  of  the  exudate, 
the  roof  of  the  mouth  is  forced  downwards,  the  eye- 
balls are  pressed  outwards,  swellings  appear  over  or 
near  the  orl)ital  space  and  the  head  l)ecomes  deformed. 
The  swollen  parts  are  congested,  tense,  and  when  cut 
open  there  escapes  a  thick  whitish  liquid,  or  soft, 
yellowish,  chees}'  masses  are  found. 

The  conjunctiva  or  mem1)rane  covering  the  e3'e  is, 
also,  very  frequently  affected  and  the  disease  may 
begin  at  this  point.  The  eyes  are,  then,  red  and 
weeping;  the  lids  are  hot,  swollen  and  painful.  The 
secretions,  at  first  serous,  then  purulent  and  caseous, 
accumulate  in  the  angle  of  the  e^'e  or  glue  the  lids 
together.  If  large  masses  are  allowed  to  collect  under 
the  lids  they  press  upon  the  cornea,  cause  irritation 
and  ulceration  and  lead  to  perforation  with  destruction 
of  the  sight. 

The  acute  form  of  the  disease  just  described  is  the 
more  common,  but  very  often  it  assumes  a  chronic 
form  with  obscure  symptoms.  The  birds  are  dull, 
weak,  lose  flesh  and  fail  to  lay  eggs  There  ma}^  be 
slight  catarrh  and  difficult}' of  breathing  and  a  care- 
ful  examination,    particularly   if    it    be   a  posimortou 


disi-:asks  ok  poultry.  221 

examination,  may  revcnl  patches  of  exudate  in  the 
nasal  passages,  the  mouth,  th.e  pharynx  or  larynx. 
In  some  cases  no  local  manifestations  can  be  detected 
and  diphtheria  is  onl}'  suspected  liecause  other  mem- 
bers of  the  flock  with  similar  symptoms  present  the 
false  mem1)ran;  s. 

The  course  of  the  disease  varies  from  a  few  days  in 
the  acute  form  to  several  weeks  in  the  chronic  form. 
In  tl:e  very  acute  cases  the  disease  is  exceedingly 
destructive  and  a  large  part  of  the  flock  may  die  in  a 
few  days.  The  chronic  form  may  not  cause  many 
deaths,  but  renders  the  birds  unproductive  for  weeks 
or  months.  Between  these  two  extremes  there  are  all 
gradations  of  virulence. 

The  period  between  exposure  to  the  contagion  and 
the  development  of  the  symptoms  may  be  only  three 
or  four  days  or  as  long  as  two  weeks.  The  disease 
produced  by  inoculation  appears  within  ten  days  with 
fowls  and  within  three  days  with  pigeons. 

Causation. —  The  diphtheria  of  birds  is  undoubt- 
edly contagious.  It  is  usually  introduced  into  a  flock 
by  the  exposure  of  the  birds  to  sick  ones  at  shows  or 
by  bringing  affected  birds  on  the  premises.  The 
contagion  may  be  carried  by  birds  which  have  the  dis- 
ease in  so  mild  a  form  that  they  show  no  symptoms  of 
it.  There  is  a  general  belief  that  the  disease  may  be 
developed  by  exposure  of  birds  to  draughts  of  air,  or 
by  keeping  them  in  damp,  filthy  and  badly -ventilated 
houses.  This  opinion  is  probably  incorrect  and  is 
accounted  for  by  the  early  symptoms  of  acute  diph- 
theria, and  those  of  all  stages  of  the  chronic  form,  re- 
sembling the  symptoms  seen  in  catarrhs  and  colds. 
Dampness  and  lack  of  ventilation  no  doubt  favor  the 
maintenance  and  development  of  the  contagion   and 


222  DISKASi:S    OF    POULTRY. 

]ir°(lispose  the  l)irds  to  the  disease.  It  is,  however, 
very  dou])tfiil  if  the  disease  can  1)e  originated  by  such 
conditions  in  the  absence  of  direct  infection  from 
affected  birds. 

Hacterioloijical  investigations  made  by  Loeffler, 
Loir  and  Ducloux,  and  Moore  indicate  that  the 
diphtheria  of  birds  is  caused  by  a  non -motile  bacillus 
O.S  to  1.5  micro -millimeters  long  by  0.8  to  1.2  micro - 
millimeters  broad,  resembling  somewhat  the  bacillus 
of  fowl  cholera,  and  rabbit  .septicemia.  There  are 
slight  differences  in  the  descriptions  given  by  these 
investigators — differences  which  may  be  accounted  for 
by  variations  of  the  germs  under  dissimilar  conditions. 
All  who  have  carefully  studied  the  bacillus  agree  in 
the  conclusion  that  it  is  entirely  distinct  from  human 
diphtheria  and  that  these  disea.ses  have  only  superficial 
points  of  resemblance.  It  has  been  found,  however, 
that  a  form  of  diphtheritic  sore  throat  sometimes 
occurs  in  people  who  are  working  about  birds  affected 
with  diphtheria  ;  but  this  disease  differs  radically  from 
the  ordinary  human  diphtheria  and  is  much  less 
serious.  There  are  recorded  cases,  moreover,  in 
which  it  appears  that  the  diphtheria  of  children  has 
been  communicated  to  birds  and  the  contagion 
preserved  for  a  considerable  time  in  that  manner. 
It  may  be  that  some  of  the  cases  of  fatal  disease 
in  children  contracted  from  fowls  were  caused 
by  the  contagion  of  the  human  form  of  the  disease 
preserved  in  this  way. 

There  are  probably  several  distinct  diseases  which 
have  been  and  are  generally  confoundtd  together  as 
dii)htheria  or  diphtheritic  roup.  A  disease  of  the  na- 
ture of  croupous  angina  has  l)een  d.'scribed  in  pullets 
and  young  pigeons  liy  Rivolta  and    D/lprato   and   also 


UISEASKS    OF    POULTKV. 


223 


by  Pfeiffer  which  was  attributed  l)y  these  authors  to 
flagellate  infusoria.  A  similar  disease  in  pigeons 
believed  to  be  caused  by  l)acteria  was  investigated  by 
LoefBer.  Purulent  collections  about  the  head  and 
oesophagus  sometimes  resemble  diphtheria  very 
closely.  The  disease  of  the  skin  known  as  chirken 
pox  and  sore  head,  caused  by  blastomycetes,  has  bj^ 
some  writers  been  called  diphtheria. 
Aspergillosis  of  the  mouth  in 
pigeons  and  croupous  enteritis  of 
fowls  produced  by  coccidia  are  also 
diseases  which  may  be  mistaken 
for  diphtheria.  These  various  dis- 
eases must  be  borne  in  mind  in 
determining  the  nature  of  any 
outbreak. 

Treatment. —  The  treatment 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts  : 
1st,  measures  for  preventing  the 
introduction  of  the  contagion;  2d, 
measures  for  suppressing  the  dis- 
ease in  the  flock,  and  3d,  treatment 
of  individual  birds. 

The  prevention  of  diphtheria  is 
mucu  more  successful  than  its  cure, 
and,  besides,  it  saves  much  time  and  many  valuable 
birds  that  will  succumb  before  treatment  can  be  com- 
menced or  notwithstanding  treatment.  Fowls  should 
not  be  allowed  to  mingle  with  those  on  neighboring 
premises.  If  some  of  the  birds  have  been  to  a  show 
or  if  new  birds  have  been  purchased  for  the  flock, 
quarantine  them  at  a  distance  from  the  home  flock  for 
thirty  days  before  they  are  allowed  to  go  together. 
While  in   quarantine  the}'  should   be  examined   from 


Figr.  (.7.  Xiiot  .if  tin 
mouth  shiiwiiijjr  ilie  exu 
date  of  dipIilUeria. 


-'J4  nisi:ASEs  ok  poui.tky. 

time  to  time  for  sym])toms  of  diphtheria,  with  special 
reference  to  the  existence  of  grayish  or  j'cUowisli 
patches  in  the  montli  or  eyes,  or  obstruction  of  the 
l)reathing.  If  at  the  end  of  thirty  days  they  have 
shown  no  symptoms  of  this  kind  the  danger  may  be 
considered  past.  Keeji  tlie  ]ionltry -houses  clean  and 
dry,  have  ample  ventilation  l)ut  freedom  from  draughts 
of  air,  and  arrange  the  house  so  that  the  sun  will 
shine  into  it  a  portion  of  the  day. 

If  the  disease  ai^iiears  in  the  flock,  notwithstanding 
the  jireventive  measures  suggested,  remove  the  sick 
birds  for  treatment  as  soon  as  the  earliest  symptoms 
are  detected.  Disinfect  the  poultry -house  and  runs 
with  a  five-per-cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and 
repeat  this  disinfection  at  least  once  a  week  while  the 
disease  remains.  Feed  a  well-balanced  ration  con- 
taining a  small  ])roportion  of  meat  scrap.  Burn  or 
safely  bury  all  dead  birds. 

The  sick  lairds  should  be  jilaced  in  a  warm,  venti- 
lated, clean,  dry  hospital  room,  where  they  will  not 
be  exposed  to  draughts  of  air  and  where  they  can  be 
readily  caught  for  examination  and  treatment.  Apply 
three  times  a  day  to  the  di])htheritic  spots  in  the 
mouth  and  ej'es  a  two -i)er-cent  solution  of  either 
creolin  or  of  pure  carbolic  acid  in  water,  and  if  possi- 
ble inject  a  small  quantity  of  the  same  solution  into 
the  nostrils.  Remove  the  diphtheritic  membranes  as 
soon  as  this  can  l)e  done  without  causing  bleeding 
from  the  affected  surface  and  continue  the  application 
of  the  remed}'.  Tincture  of  iodine  has  been  success- 
fully applied  to  the  diseased  parts  of  the  mouth,  and 
a  solution  of  salicylic  acid  in  water  1  grain  to  the 
ounce  has  been  recommended  for  the  eyes.  Boric 
acid  solution  of  the  strength  of  15  grains  to  an  ounce 


DISK  ASKS    OK    POULTRY.  225 

of  water  may  be  applied  to  the  eyes,  nostrils  or  mouth 
and  while  often  ])eneficial  has  the  advantage  of  liein^ 
one  of  the  mildest  and  safest  remedies  recommended. 
It  may  be  a]iplied  as  frequently  as  convenient,  and  if 
a  pledget  of  al)sor]ient  cotton  is  saturated  with  it  and 
held  for  some  minutes  upon  the  affected  part,  the 
beneficial  effects  are  increased.  Some  recommend  re- 
moval of  the  membranes,  treatment  of  the  affected 
patches  with  boric  acid  solution  and  then  covering  the 
part  with  flowers  of  sulphur.  An  excellent  remedy  is 
made  by  dissolving  thirty -five  grains  of  chlorate  of 
potassium  and  two  grains  of  salicylic  acid  in  one 
ounce  of  water  and  adding  one  ounce  of  glycerine. 
This  liciuid  should  l)e  a])plied  to  the  diphtheritic  spots 
two  or  three  times  a  day  and  may  also  be  given  in- 
ternally in  the  dose  of  a  teaspoonful  for  fowls  and 
one -fourth  to  one -half  as  much  for  pigeons. 

Fumigation  with  oil  of  turpentine  bj'  evaporating 
this  in  the  room  so  that  the  affected  birds  will  be 
forced  to  l)reathe  the  vapors  has  been  found  beneficial. 
It  is  best  not  to  use  fire  for  this  eva]ioration,  as  the 
turpentine  is  very  inflammable.  The  desired  result 
may  be  obtained  by  heating  a  brick,  a  stone  or  a  piece 
of  iron  at  the  stove,  taking  this  to  the  room  where  the 
sick  fowls  are  confined  and  pouring  the  turpentine 
upon  the  heated  surface  as  fast  as  it  evaporates.  In 
this  way  the  air  of  the  rotMU  is  charged  with  turpen- 
tine vapors  which  are  inhaled  ])y  the  birds  at  each 
ins])iration.  This  fumigation  should  be  repeated 
twice  a  day. 

Stimulating  and  tonic  remedies  have  been  more  or 
less  successful  and  are  especialh*  valuable  in  the 
chronic  forms  of  the  disease.  The  following  com- 
bination may  be   used  :   Cayenne  pepper,  sulphate   of 


226  DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY. 

(luinine  and  sulphate  of  iron,  of  each  one  grain.  Mix 
and  make  into  ]nlls  with  a  small  quantit}^  of  syrup. 
Cjive  at  one  dose  for  fowls,  and  for  piy^eons  one-third 
the  t|uantity.  Another  tonic  is  made  by  mixinj^ 
sulphate  of  iron  45  grains  with  carbonate  of  soda, 
finely  pulverized,  1  dram,  honey  or  syrup  sufficient  for 
proper  consistency.      It  is  divided  into  50  pills. 

Vaccination  has  been  ])racticed  successfully  by  Loir 
and  Ducloux.  The  weaker  vaccine  is  made  by  heat- 
ing cultures  of  the  bacilli  to  55  degrees  C.  for  half  an 
hour.  A  dose  of  one  cubic  centimeter  of  such  vaccine 
injected  under  the  skin  of  fowls  causes  only  a  slight 
elevation  of  temperature  and  confers  a  certain  degree 
of  immunity.  These  birds  are  then  inoculated  with 
one  cubic  centimeter  of  a  culture  of  the  bacilli  two 
months  old.  This  second  vaccination  raises  the  im- 
munit}'  to  such  a  degree  that  the  birds  are  able  to  re- 
sist the  contagion. 

It  has  recentl}'  been  proposed  to  treat  birds  with  the 
same  antitoxin  that  is  made  for  human  diphtheria, 
and  verj'  successful  results  are  claimed  for  such  treat- 
ment. It  is  just  possible  that  this  conclusion  may  be 
confirmed ;  but  the  almost  unanimous  testimony  of 
bacteriologists  that  the  germs  of  the  human  and  avian 
diseases  are  entirely  distinct  makes  such  confirmation 
very  doubtful. 

For  further  suggestions  as  to  treatment  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  article  on  contagious  catarrh. 

Fowls  which  have  been  affected  should  not  be  re- 
turned to  the  flock  for  thirty  days  after  they  have 
apparently  recovered,  otherwise  they  may  still  com- 
municate contagion. 

iNKKCTiors  leuk.v:mia. 

A  disease  of  fowls  which  appeared  to  be  {|uite  com- 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRV.  227 

mou  was  investigated  by  Moore  in  1894  and  1895  and 
described  under  the  name  i)//(rh'o/(s  lci(ka-))iia.  The 
term  leukiemia  (or  leucaemia)  is  used  to  designate  a 
condition  of  the  l)Iood  in  which  there  is  a  deficienc}' 
of  coloring  matter.  In  the  disease  under  considera- 
tion the  blood  is  light  colored  or  pale  owing  to  a  con- 
siderable decrease  in  the  numl^er  of  red  globules  and 
%  ^  an  increase  in  the 

'     *      «  «      %     *     #  number   of     white 

%         •#       •  ^        ^  corpuscles     or 

V>  •  «        *  *  1  e  u  c  o  c  y  t  e  s .    As 

-  *  ^  «  *  •      •      the     malady     was 

«  -      found  to  be  caused 

•  *  •>•  •  ♦  1- 

*  ,  *       ♦  by      a     bacterium 

*  %  %          and    to    be    infec- 

tious,   it    was    de- 
«  \  cided  to  call  it  /;/  - 

Fig-.  (i%.—Iiacttriiiin   saiigitiuaiiuiii,  bouiUon  cul-  JCCtlOUS     It'llkcDJlia. 
ture,  (mag^nified  2,0(X) diameters;.  A     Sufficient    num- 

ber of  cases  have  not  j^et  been  studied  to  permit  a 
satisfactory  description  to  be  written  ;  but  such  facts 
as  have  been  noted  are  sunnnarized  in  this  article. 
The  disease  has  fre(|uenth'  been  mistaken  for  fowl 
cholera,  and  has  been  observed  in  Rhode  Island, 
Maryland,  District  of  Columbia,  and  Virginia.  A 
very  fatal  outbreak  of  this  disease  has  been  observed 
by  the  author  in  a  large  brooder -house  among  in- 
cubator chickens  from  one  to  three  weeks  old. 

Symptoms. —  The  disease  appears  with  a  consider- 
able elevation  of  temperature,  reaching  three  degrees 
or  more  above  the  normal.  There  is  drowsiness  and 
general  debility,  with  paleness  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes and  also  of  the  comb,  wattles,  and  skin  about 
the    head.     The    fever    is    of     a     continuous     type, 


DISEASKS    OF    POULTRY. 


generally  resulting  in  death  in  from  four  to  five  days. 
In  some  cases  the  duration  of  the  disease  is  longer  and 
two  or  three  weeks  may  elapse  before  the  death  of  the 
bird.     There  is  then  excessive  emaciation.     A  micro- 
scopic  examination    of    the   blood    shows    a    marked 
diminution  in  the  number  of  red  corpuscles  and  an  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  white  ones.     In   one  case  the 
red     corpuscles 
decreased    from 
3,744,000      per 
cubic  millimeter 
to  2,133,000, 
and    the    white 
ones     increased 
from   21.000    to 
14  0,000.      In 
another  case  the 
red      cori^uscles  Fig 
were  diminished 
from  3,534,000  to   1,745,000,   while    the    white  ones 
increased  from   19,000   to    245,000.     There  is  loss   of 
appetite  with   slight   ruffling  of  the  plumage,  and  the 
head  drawn  close  to   the  body.     There  appears  to  be 
no  diarrheal  symptoms  with  this  disease,  or  if  ihe}^  are 
sometimes  seen  they  \my  be  regarded  as  exce])tional. 
The   period  of  incul)ation   is  from  two   to   four  days. 
The  alterations  discovered  hy  post))io>!ei>i  examination 
are  confined  to  the  liver   and   the   blood.     The  liver  is 
somewhat  enlarged  and  dark  colored,  and  the   surface 
is  sprinkled  with  minute  graj'ish  areas. 

C.\us.\Tiox. — This  disease  is  undoubtedly  infectious 
and  is  caused  by  a  micro-organism  which  Moore  has 
named  Ihu  trn'iiin  sa?i^iriii>ian'inu.  This  germ  is  a  non- 
motile,  rod -shaped   organism,  which   as   found    in  the 


69. — Biiiteriuiii     siiiigiiiiit)iii:iii    from     li^cr    of 
fowl,    mafftiified  2,000  diameters). 


DISEASES    OF    POULTKV.  229 

tissues  of  fowls  is  from  1.2  to  1 .8  micro-niilliineters 
long  and  1  to  1.3  micro -niillinieters  l)roacl.  It  fre- 
quently appears  in  small  clumps,  but  as  a  rule  is  in 
pairs  united  end  to  end.  This  germ  is  found  in  the 
blood  and  in  various  organs  of  the  body. 

Exoerimentallj'   the   disease   has   been  ]~)roduced  b}^ 
inoculating  with   ])ure  cultures  of  the  germs   and  by 

feeding  pure  cultures 
or     the      organs      of 


i 


affected  fowls.  The 
injection  of  0.3  cubic 
centimeter  of  a  fresh 
^  culture  into  the  wing 
vein  caused  the  dis- 
ease    and     death     in 

*^  /•'"■"'■■-,  from  three  to  thirteen 

■f         I 
{         :j  daj'S ;   usuallv  on  the 

Fig-.      IQ.—Boclcriioii      saiigiiiiutriiini       from     hitll       Or      SlXtll      day. 

spleen  of  rabbit.  Feeding    cultures    or 

viscera  of  affected  birds  was  followed  by  death  in 
from  seven  to  fifteen  days,  but  only  about  half  of  the 
birds  fed  contracted  the  disease.  Pigeons,  rabbits, 
guinea  pigs  and  mice  contract  the  disease  if  inoculated 
with  0.2  to  0.3  cubic  centimeter  of  culture  and  die 
within  three  to  six  days. 

It  appears  probable  from  these  investigations  that 
the  contagion  in  natural  out1)reaks  is  taken  into  the 
body  with  the  food,  but  the  disease  is  not  readily 
propagated  under  sanitary  conditions.  Healthy  fowls 
placed  in  cages  with  diseased  ones  did  not  in  a  single 
instance  contract  the  disease.  When  cultures  of  the 
germs  and  diseased  viscera  were  fed,  only  about  oue- 
half  of  the  fowls  became  affected.  Xotvv'ithstandi ng 
this,  nearly  all  of  one   flock  of  about   fiftv  fowls  near 


230 


DISEASES   OF    POULTRY. 


Washington,  I).  C.  died  from  this  disease;  nearly 
eighty  hens  and  pullets  were  lost  on  a  farm  at  Tackett 
Mills,  Va.  ;  about  fifty-five  out  of  seventy  died  in  a 
flock,  on  Block  Island  ;  fifty  old  hens  died  on  a  farm  in 
Maryland  near  Washington ;  and  several  thousand 
small  chickens  died  in  a  broiler -raising  establishment 
in  the  same  section. 
These  instances  are 
mentioned  to  show 
the  destructiveness 
of  the  disease  under 
conditions  favoralde 
to  its  propagation. 
The  germ  can  not  be 
considered  a  very 
virulent  one,  how- 
ever, and,  as  sug- 
gested b}^  Moore, 
the  outbreaks  ap- 
pear to  occur  where 
the  requirements  of 
ordinary  hygiene 
are  not  strictly  complied  with.  In  other  words,  this 
malady  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  filth  disease,  and  as 
the  germ  resembles  in  some  respects  the  common 
intestinal  germ  known  as  the  Bacilhts  coli  communis, 
it  is  not  improbable  that  outbreaks  may  occur  from 
filth  without  the  necessity  of  importing  the  contagion 
upon  a  premises.  In  the  brooder -houses  above  re- 
ferred to,  the  brooders  were  not  bedded  with  sand  as 
they  should  be,  but  the  chicks  were  placed  directl}^ 
upon  the  wooden  floors,  which  became  saturated  with 
the  droppings.  In  the  high  temperature  necessarily 
maintained  in  the  brooders,  the  decomposition  of  such 


Flff.  71.  —  /liiiliiiiiiii  siiiigiiiiiiiiiinii  in   c.ipillary 
of  fowl's  liver,  (nia^iiilied  2,l'uO  diameier?-.) 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  231 

organic  material  was  rapid,  and  tlic  chicks  wereex- 
l)osed  both  to  the  fonl  <j:aseons  emanations,  and  to  the 
j^^erms  which  a])ound  in  pntrefying  excreta. 

Trkatmknt.— The  prevention  of  the  filth  diseases 
is  mnch  easier  than  their  cnre,  and  this  malady  is  no 
exception  to  the  rule.  Cleanliness,  good  food,  pure 
water  and  ventilation  are  conditions  antac^onistic  to 
the  propagation  of  infectious  leukaemia.  With  these 
conditions,  it  has  been  found  difficult  to  keep  up  the 
disease  experimentally,  and  it  has  not  been  found 
upon  premises  where  they  exist. 

When  this  disease  appears  the  poultry -houses 
should  l)e  cleaned  and  whitewashed  The  floors 
should  be  sprinkled  with  carbolic  acid  in  solution  of 
five-per-cent  strength.  Other  efficient  disinfectants 
may  of  course  be  used  if  more  convenient.  The  sick 
fowls  must  be  removed  and  isolated.  Quinine  in  the 
dose  of  1  to  2  grains  has  been  suggested  for  the  sick 
fowls.  Sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  in  the  drinking 
water  is  thought  to  be  a  good  prophylactic  remedy. 
Probably  any  stimulating  and  tonic  treatment  will 
prove  beneficial  after  proper  sanitary  surroundings  are 
secured. 

It  has  been  found  experimentally  that  the  germ  is 
killed  in  five  minutes  by  a  one-per-cent  solution  of 
carbolic  acid,  and  in  ten  minutes  by  lime  water. 
Sulphur  fumes  were  also  effectual  by  three  hours 
treatment.  It  is,  also,  destroyed  by  a  temperature  of 
136.4  degrees  F.,  and,  consequently,  boiling  water 
may  be  used  to  cleanse  drinking  and  feeding  troughs 
and  other  infected  articles.  As  the  disease  appears  to 
be  one  of  the  most  common  to  which  fowls  aresuV)- 
ject,    there  should    be    amjile    opi)ortunities    to    make 


232  DISKASKS    Ol-    POULTRY, 

ex])eriinent.s  for  determiniticr  if  any  other  measures  of 
treatment  are  available. 

1-()\VI.    CHOIJ'KA. 

This  is  a  contay:ious  disease  of  birds  caused  by- 
bacteria,  and  traiisniissable  by  cohabitation  and  in- 
oculation. It  is  characterized  by  high  fever,  great 
weakness  and  iirostration,  and  usually  terminates  in 
the  death  of  the  affected  bird. 

History. —  This  disease  is  mentioned  in  some  of 
the  oldest  works  treating  of  the  diseases  of  animals. 
It  was  studied  in  1782  l:)y  Chabert  who  regarded  it  as 
a  form  of  anthrax.  This  error  is  freciuentlj^  repeated 
bj'  writers  of  the  ]ireseut  day.  Fowl  cholera  is  not 
a  form  of  anthrax  and  has  none  of  the  characteristics 
of  that  plague  which  is  so  fatal  in  its  results  ui)on 
nearly  all  warm-blooded  animals. 

Since  1825,  fowl  cholera  has  been  frecjuently  ob- 
served in  France  and  caused  enormous  losses  in  1830, 
1850,  and  above  all  in  1860.  About  1830  it  became 
known  in  Russia,  Bohemia  and  Austria.  During 
recent  j'ears  it  has  been  observed  in  al)Out  all  the 
countries  of  Euroi^e  as  well  as  in  the  United  States. 

Benjamin  in  1851  considered  it  to  be  a  contagious 
disease  and  remarked  that  people  and  dogs  might 
consume  with  impunity,  the  meat  of  affected  fowls. 
Delafond  and  others  observed  that  it  might  be  trans- 
mitted to  birds  and  rabbits  by  using  the  blood,  the 
secretions,  and  portions  of  the  flesh  as  infective 
agencies.  They  also  recognized  the  virulence  of  the 
excrement  and  the  important  part  which  this  plays  in 
the  dissemination  of  the  contagion. 

The  recent  investigations  of  this  disease  began 
with  an  important  article  by  Perroncito  in  which  the 
specific  germ  of  the  disease  was  descril^ed.     This  was 


DISKASICS    OF    POULTKV.  233 

followeil  !)>■  the  coutrii)iitious  of  Pasteur,  who,  in 
1880,  cultivated  the  germ  in  chicken  broth  and  showed 
that  its  virulence  might  l)e  reduced  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  could  safely  be  used  for  vaccination.  This  is 
the  first  case  in  which  a  virulent  gernl  was  success- 
fully modified  in  a  laboratory  and  made  to  act  as  a 
vaccine.  It  led  to  the  preparation  of  vaccines  for  a 
number  of  diseases,  more  particularly  anthrax,  black 
quarter,  and  rabies. 

The  disease  was  at  about  the  same  time  investigated 
by  the  author,  who  gave  special  attention  to  vaccina- 
tion and  the  effect  of  disinfectants  in  destroying  this 
virus. 

General  Characters. —  Fowl  cholera  attacks 
all  varieties  of  domesticated  poultry — chickens,  ducks, 
geese,  pigeons,  turkeys,  and  also  caged  birds  such  as 
parrots  and  canaries.  It  also  affects  some  species  of 
wild  birds. 

The  infection  generally  occurs  b}'  taking  food  or 
drink  contaminated  with  the  excrement  of  sick  birds. 
It  is,  also,  possible  for  birds  to  be  infected  through 
wounds  of  the  skin  or  by  inhalation  of  the  germs  in 
the  form  of  dust  suspended  in  the  air.  They  often 
take  the  germs  into  their  bodies  by  consuming  i^arti- 
cles  of  flesh  or  blood  from  the  carcasses  of  affected 
birds  that  have  died  or  have  been  killed. 

This  disease  is  generally  introduced  upon  a  farm, 
or  in  a  locality,  with  new  l)irds  purchased  for  improv- 
ing the  flocks,  or  with  eggs  for  hatching.  When  it 
exists  in  a  district  it  may  be  disseminated  by  wild 
animals  or  wild  birds. 

Fowl  cholera  is  communicable  by  inoculation  to 
rabbits  and  mice.  Guinea  pigs  are  not  verj-  suscepti- 
ble; the   young  animals   may  die  but  the  adult  ones 


234  DISK  ASKS    OF    POULTRY. 

usually  have  nothing    more    than    an    abscess   at   the 
])oint  of  inoculation. 

Symptoms. —  This  disease  as  it  occurs  in  ICurojie  is 
more  rapid  in  its  course  and  differs  somewhat  in  its 
symptoms  from  outbreaks  which  the  author  has  ob - 
served  in  the  I'nited  States.  The  incubation  in 
Eurojie  is  placed  at  8  to  16  hours.  In  the  case  of  40 
fowls  inoculated  by  the  author,  the  average  period  of 
incubation  was  8  days,  and  it  varied  from  4  to  20 
days.  The  virus  evidently  varies  in  its  activity  in 
this  country.  The  duration  of  the  disease,  also,  varies. 
With  the  40  cases  mentioned  above  it  averaged  3  days. 
The  sick  birds  generally  stop  eating  or  the  appetite 
is  lessened,  though  occasionally  they  continue  to  eat 
almost  to  the  time  of  death.  The  earliest  indication 
of  the  disease,  is  a  yellow  coloration  of  the  urates,  or 
that  part  of  the  excrement  which  is  excreted  b}-  the 
kidneys.  This  is  in  health  a  pure  white,  though  it  is 
frequently  tinted  with  yellow  as  the  result  of  other 
disorders  than  cholera.  While,  thefefore,  this  yellow- 
ish color  of  the  urates  is  not  an  absolutely  certain 
proof  of  cholera,  it  is  a  valuable  indication  when  the 
disease  has  appeared  in  a  flock  and  an  effort  is  being 
made  to  check  its  course  by  isolating  birds  as  soon  as 
possible  after  infection. 

In  a  few  cases  the  first  symptom  is  a  diarrhea  in 
which  the  excrement  is  passed  in  large  quantities  and 
consists  almost  entireh'  of  white  urates  mixed  with 
colorless  mucus.  Generally,  the  diarrhea  is  a  prom- 
inent symptom.  The  excrement  is  voided  frequently 
and  consists  largelj^  of  urates  suspended  in  a  thin, 
transparent,  sometimes  frothy  mucus.  The  urates 
have  a  deep  yellow  color,  which  in  the  later  stages  of 


DISEASKS    OF    POULTRY.  235 

the  disease  maj-  chanj^e  to  greenish  or  even  a  deep 
green . 

Very  soon  after  these  first  symptoms  api)ear  the 
bird  separates  itself  from  the  flock,  it  no  longer  stands 
erect,  the  feathers  are  roughened  or  stand  on  end,  the 
wings  droop,  the  head  is  drawn  down  towards  the 
body  and  the  generr.l  outline  of  the  l)ird  becomes 
spherical  or  ball -shaped.  At  this  period,  there  is 
great  weakness,  the  affected  bird  l)ecomes  drowsy  and 
ma}'  sink  into  a  sleep  which  lasts  during  the  last 
day  or  two  of  its  life,  and  from  which  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  arouse  it. 

The  crop  is  nearly  always  distended  with  food  and 
apparently  paralysed.  There  is  in  most  cases  intense 
thirst.  If  the  birds  are  aroused  and  caused  to  walk 
there  is  at  first  an  abundant  discharge  of  excrement 
followed  at  short  intervals  by  scanty  evacuations. 

With  the  beginning  of  diarrhea  the  body  tempera- 
ture rises  to  109  degrees  or  110  degrees  F.,  which  is 
2  degrees  to  4  degrees  above  the  normal.  The  comb 
loses  its  bright  hue  and  becomes  pale  and  bloodless. 
In  Europe  the  comb  is  described  as  dark  blue,  purple, 
or  black,  and  some  writers  in  the  United  States  have 
referred  to  it  in  the  same  terms,  but  the  author  has 
never  observed  a  dark  comb  in  the  cases  he  has  seen. 

Diseased  birds  rapidly  lose  in  weight,  they  are  so 
weak  that  a  ^light  touch  causes  them  to  fall  over,  and 
they  walk  with  great  difhcult^^  Death  may  occur 
without  a  struggle  or  there  ma}'  be  convulsive  move- 
ments and  cries. 

This  disease  may  rai)idly  run  through  a  flock  de- 
stroying the  greater  part  of  the  birds  in  a  week,  or  it 
may  assume  a  more  chronic  form,  extend  slowly,  and 


236  DISEASKS    OF    rOUI.TRY. 

remain  ii])on  the  premises  for  several  weeks  or 
montlis. 

Postmortem  Appearances. —  The  comb  is  pale 
and  bloodless,  but  neither  dark  nor  dark  lilue,  as  it 
has  often  been  described,  jiarticularly  in  Europe.  The 
superficial  blood  vessels  generally  contain  l)ut  little 
blood,  and  there  are  in  most  cases  soiled  feathers  about 
the  anus,  to  which  the  excrement  may  adhere  in  con- 
siderable (luantity. 

The  liver  in  nearly  every  case  is  enormousl}'  en- 
larged, softened,  with  blood  vessels  very  apparent, 
often  of  a  very  dark  or  dark -green  color.  The  gall 
bladder  is  distended  with  thick,  dark  bile. 

The  crop  is  generally'  distended  with  food,  though 
no  special  lesions  have  been  noticed  here  The  stom- 
ach, viewed  externally,  often  presents  a  number  of 
circular  discolorations  about  one -tenth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  which  on  section  are  found  to  be  small  clots 
of  extravasated  blood.  The  small  intestines  are  con- 
gested . 

The  rectum  and  cloaca  generally  present  deep  red 
lines  upon  their  mucous  membrane,  evidentlj'  the  first 
stage  of  inflammation,  which  results,  in  chronic  cases, 
in  thickening  of  the  walls,  especially  of  the  rectum, 
the  desquamation  of  the  mucous  membrane,  and  the 
formation  of  large  ulcerous  surfaces. 

The  mesenter}'  is  generally  congested,  often  greatly 
thickened  and  rendered  opaque  b}^  inflammation.  The 
ureters  are  distended  with  3'ellow  urates ;  the  kidneys 
seem  engorged,  and  on  section  accumulations  of  the 
tenacious,  yellow  urates  are  frequently  seen.  The 
spleen  is  generally  normal  in  size  and  appearance, 
though  frequently  enlarged  and  softened. 

The  pericardium   is  sometimes  distended  with  effu- 


DISKASKS    OV    POULTRY. 


237 


sion,  in  which  case  there  is  noticeable  hypenemia  of 
the  surface  of  the  heart.  The  lungs  are  often,  though 
not  generally,  engorged  with  dark  blood;  they  are 
seldom,  if  ever,  hepati/.ed. 

The  blood  vessels  are  sometimes  filled  with  a  firm 
dot,  and  contain  but  little  liquid  ;  at  other  times  the 
blood  does  not  coagulate  at  all.  It  seems  to  be  those 
cases  where  the  duration  of  the  disease  has  been  long- 
est, in  which  the  blood  loses  its  property  of  coagu- 
lation. 

The  brain,  in  the  case  examined,  was  either  normal 
ornot  very  perceptibly   altered.     The  muscles  at  the 

seat     of     inoculation     are 
generally   reddened,  though 
sometimes  perfectly  normal. 
Causation.— The   cause 
;^  of  fowl  cholera  is  a  minute 
germ      which       under      the 
microscope    presents    either 
a    circular  or   oval    outline. 
It    is    one    of    the    bacteria 
and     has     been    called     by 
some    a     micrococcus,    and 
by     others    a    bacillus.     It 
is     about     one     fifty -thou- 
sandth   of    an     inch     broad 
and     two     or     three     times 
as    long.     It   grows    best   at    from   85  degrees  to  105 
degrees   F.     It  has  no  power  of  movement,  does  not 
form  spores,  and  is  easily  destroyed  by  drying,  by  the 
ordinary   disinfectants,  and  by  a   temperature  of  132 
degrees  F.  for  15  minutes. 

In  the  experiments  of  the  author   it  was  found  that 
the  virus  was   destroyed   by  salicylic  acid  1  percent; 


Fig-.  "2.— BaciHiof  fowl   cholera. 


238  DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY. 

benzoic  acid  1  i^er  cent;  carbolic  acid  1  i>er  cent; 
sulphuric  acid  '.•  per  cent.  vSubstances  which  failed 
to  destroy  the  virulence  were  alcohol  20  per  cent; 
])oric  acid  2  per  cent;  sulphate  of  potassium  2  per 
cent;   iodine  0.1  per  cent. 

This  germ  may  gain  entrance  to  the  body  through 
the  digestive  tract,  the  respiratory  organs,  or  through 
wounds  of  the  skin.  It  diffuses  itself  through  the 
blood,  multiplying  in  this  liquid,  and  in  all  of  the 
liquids  and  organs  of  the  body.  Death  is  caused  in 
acute  cases  by  the  toxic  substances  produced  during 
the  multiplication  of  the  germ,  and  in  chronic  cases, 
by  the  distur])ances  of  digestion,  assimilation  and 
nutrition. 

The  meat  of  infected  and  even  of  dead  birds  has 
been  eaten  in  Some  countries  without  injurious  effects 
to  the  consumers.  It  is  assumed,  therefore,  that  such 
meat  is  innocuous  ;  but  its  sale  should  be  prohibited 
in  common  with  all  meat  from  sick  animals,  or  from 
those  which  have  died  from  natural  causes. 

The  germ  of  fowl  cholera  is  fatal  to  rabbits, 
causing  death  in  from  twelve  to  forty -eight  hours. 
When  inoculated  upon  guinea  pigs,  sheep,  horses  and 
mankind,  an  abscess  forms  at  the  point  of  inoculation, 
but  there  are  no  general  symptoms  and  recovery  soon 
follows. 

Trk.\tmkxt. —  All  forms  of  medical  treatment  for 
cholera  have  been  unsatisfactory  when  tested  suffici- 
ently to  prove  their  exact  effects.  Many  preparations 
have  been  recommended,  but  their  sanguine  discover- 
ers had  not  been  careful  to  ascertain  that  they  really 
were  treating  cholera,  or  they  had  tried  them  on  so 
few  birds  that  their  results  were  uutrustworlhy. 

The     drugs      most    frequently     used  are    suljihur, 


DISKASKS    OF    POULTRY.  239 

coi)iKTas,  caiisicum,  alum  and  resin,  given  either 
alone  or  mixed  together.  The  effect  of  these 
remedies  is  either  stimulating  or  astringent  or  both 
according  to  the  combination  that  is  used.  Some  rec-" 
ommeiid  a  solution  made  by  diluting  one  dram  of 
carbolic  or  hydrochloric  acid  with  one  quart  of  water. 
This  is  given  to  adult  birds  in  the  dose  of  a  dessert- 
spoonful. We  would  not  advise  our  readers  to  put 
much  confidence  in  internal  medication. 

The  proper  manner  of  comijating  cholera  is  to  carry 
out  strict  sanitary  ]irecautions.  Rememlier  that  it  is 
a  contagious  disease  and  that  it  depends  upon  germs 
which  are  in  some  way  brought  ui^on  the  premises 
from  some  other  place  where  the  disease  exists.  The 
contagion  ma}'  be  carried  in  various  ways.  Sometimes 
it  is  brought  with  newly  ])urchased  birds;  sometimes 
it  comes  with  eggs ;  sometimes  it  is  carried  by  wild 
birds,  and  sometimes  it  is  transported  ])y  animals. 
The  poultryman  must  guard  against  the  introduction 
of  contagion  into  his  flock  by  all  means  at  his  com- 
mand. He  must  isolate  and  (juarantine  newly  pur- 
chased birds  for  two  weeks  before  they  are  mixed  with 
his  flock.  If  he  hatches  eggs  from  other  yards,  the 
nest  and  the  young  birds  must  be  kept  isolated  until 
it  is  known  that  the}'  are  healthy,  that  is  until  the 
chicks  are  ten  daj-s  old. 

Dogs  and  other  animals  should  be  fenced  out  of  the 
poultry' -yards  if  possilde.  Birds  which  have  been 
exhibited  at  shows  should  be  cjuarantined  for  ten  days 
after  their  return. 

ShouUl  the  disease  appear  in  spite  of  precautions, 
isolate  and  disinfect.  The  isolation  need  not  require 
a  wide  separation  of  the  birds.  Ten  feet  is  sufficient 
distance  to   ])revent  the  communication  of  this  con- 


240  DISKASES    OK    POULTRY. 

taj^ioii,  if  it  is  not  carried  in  some  way  from  pen  to 
pen  by  the  attendant  or  by  animals.  It  does  not 
Sjiread  to  any  a])precia])le  distance  through  the  at- 
mosphere. 

Disinfection. —  Disinfection  shonld  be  constant 
wliile  this  disease  is  on  the  premises.  For  this  pur- 
pose a  solution  may  be  made  by  mixing  one  pound  of 
carbolic  acid  with  twenty -four  pounds,  or  say  twelve 
quarts,  of  hot  water.  Or  one  pound  of  sulphuric  acid 
to  fifty  quarts  of  water  may  be  used.  The  latter  is 
the  cheapest  but  it  is  more  dangerous  to  use.  When 
the  sulphuric  acid  is  purchased  have  the  druggist 
dilute  it  with  twice  its  weight  of  water.  If  thus 
diluted  it  will  not  burn  the  flesh  or  clothing  as  severely 
as  when  concentrated  and  there  is  little  danger  of  an 
explosion  when  it  is  further  diluted.  When  diluting 
it,  always  pour  the  acid  very  slowly  into  a  compara- 
tively large  quantity  of  water,  being  careful  that  it 
does  not  splash  into  the  eyes,  and  remember  that  con- 
siderable heat  results.  A  wooden  bucket  is,  therefore, 
better  than  a  glass  bottle,  and,  on  account  of  its  cor- 
rosive nature,  metal  vessels  can  only  be  used  for  the 
most  dilute  solution.  If  carefully  used  with  proper 
]irecautions  to  prevent  it  flying  into  the  face  or  eyes 
when  diluting,  sulphuric  acid  is  the  most  satisfactory 
disinfectant.  If  any  gets  upon  the  flesh,  apply  large 
quantities  of  w^ater  at  once,  or  it  will  burn  very 
deeply;  if  it  reaches  the  clothing  it  causes  discolora- 
tion and  soon  destroys  the  fabric.  It  may  be  neutral- 
ized with  ammonia  or  a  solution  of  baking  soda. 
With  this  digression  concerning  disinfectants  we  will 
now  return  to  the  methods  of  disinfecting.  If  possi- 
ble move  the  fowls  to  new  runs  and  new  houses  when 
cholera  appears  among  them.     Before  they  are  moved. 


DISEASES    OF    POULTRY.  241 

however,  separate  all  which  are  apparently  sick  and 
])Ut  these  by  themselves.  Now  saturate  the  floor  of 
the  old  house  and  all  of  the  manure  which  is  ahout  it 
with  one  of  the  disinfectants  just  mentioned.  This 
may  be  applied  convenientl}'  with  a  watering  can  such 
as  is  used  for  waterino:  flowerbeds  or  gardens. 

The  healthy  fowls  of  the  flock  should  be  confined  to 
a  small  run,  and  this  as  well  as  the  iioultry -house 
should  be  disinfected  by  sprinkling  at  least  once  a 
da}'.  The  drop])ings  should  be  swept  up,  disinfected 
and  removed  every  day.  The  Ijuildings  should  be 
well  whitewashed  and  the  disinfecting  effect  of  this 
aj^plication  may  be  increased  by  adding  one  quarter  of 
a  ])ound  of  carbolic  acid  to  each  gallon  of  lime. 

Ekadic.vtixc,  Cholera  — The  fowls  should  be 
carefully  watched  and  if  any  show  signs  of  disease 
they  should  be  removed  at  once.  It  is  possible  to 
arrest  an  outbreak  of  fowl  cholera  in  a  very  short  time 
by  adopting  such  measures.  If  they  are  ])ersevered 
in  for  two  or  three  weeks  without  any  more  birds  be- 
coming sick  the  danger  may  be  considered  at  an  end. 

The  difficulty  of  arresting  outbreaks  of  cholera  is 
usually  due  to  the  fowls  being  allowed  to  roam  over 
an  unlimited  range.  By  the  time  the  disease  is  recog- 
nized, the  contagion  is  widely  scattered  through  the 
droppings  of  the  affected  birds.  It  is,  of  course,  im- 
possible to  disinfect  a  large  range,  and,  conseciuenlly, 
the  birds  continue  to  pick  up  the  infection  and  one 
after  another  contract  the  disease  until  the  greater  jiart 
is  lost. 

If  it  is  decided  to  kill  sick  birds  in  order  to  get  rid 
of  the  contagion  as  rajiidly  as  possible,  dig  a  deep 
hole,  put  the  birds  into  it  and  kill  them  there,  so  that 
their  bodies  and  lilood  will  be  buried  together.     Other- 


242  DISKASliS    OF    rOUI.TRY. 

wise  the  l)lood,  which  is  very  virulent,  may  remain 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  cause  another  out- 
break of  the  disease.  The  birds  which  die  from 
cholera  should  in  all  cases  be  cremated  or  deeply 
buried. 

X'ACCi.NA'riON.— \'accination  can  not  be  recom- 
mended as  a  preventive.  The  susceptiljility  of  differ- 
ent breeds  of  birds  varies  to  such  an  extent  that  a 
vaccine  which  is  safe  for  one  miy  be  deadly  for 
another.  If  we  had  only  one  breed  of  birds  to  deal  with 
there  is  little  dou])t  but  that  vaccination  would  be 
ada])ted  to  it  and  made  a  ])ractical  preventive;  but 
with  so  many  breeds,  each  varyinj:^  from  the  other,  the 
task  of  the  vaccinator  is  discourai^ing. 

An  interesting  discovery  in  this  connection  was 
made  bj'  Dr.  Kitt,  a  Oernian  \-eterinarian.  Kitt 
found  that  the  eggs  of  fowls  that  had  been  made  im- 
mune to  cholera  contain  something  analogous  to 
antitoxin,  which  may  be  used  to  produce  immunity  in 
other  birds.  He  injects  from  one  to  two  and  one- 
quarter  drams  of  the  white  of  the  eggs  under  the  skin 
of  the  bird  to  be  ]:)rotected.  From  what  we  know 
concerning  the  antitoxins  of  other  diseases,  it  is 
probable  that  such  eggs  wo.ild  be  more  useful  in  treat- 
ing sick  birds  than  in  vaccinating  well  ones  against 
the  disease. 

It  would  not  be  a  difficult  matter  to  vaccinate  or 
inoculate  a  number  of  hens  until  they  had  a  very  high 
degree  of  immunity,  and  their  eggs  should  then,  ac- 
cording to  this  doctrine,  be  of  great  remedial  value. 
For  valuable  birds  this  treatment  might  be  of  service, 
but  it  is  doulitful  if  there  would  ever  be  sufficient  call 
for  the  remedy  to  warrant  any  one  in  making  the 
necessary  preparations  to  supi)ly  it  when  needed. 


DlSHASKS    Ol''    POUI/l*KV.  243 


CHAPTER  XII, 


InjurioUvS  Habits  ok  \'ick.s. 


EOG    KATTNC,  — KRATHKK    IvATlNC,    I'RATHl'.W     IMT.IJNG 


EGG    EATING. 

®NE  of  the  most  troublesome  and  injurious  of 
the  acquired  habits  of  poultry  is  egg  eating. 
Undoubtedly  the  habit  begins  in  most  cases 
by  the  accidental  breaking  of  an  eg^  in  the 
nest,  but  it  rapidly  spreads  among  the  flock  until  a 
large  proportion  of  the  eggs  laid  are  purposely  broken 
and  eaten  by  the  hens.  The  heavy  breeds  of  fowls 
are  most  subject  to  this  habit  because  they  more 
frequently  break  their  eggs  by  stepping  upon  them 
than  do  lighter  birds.  When  an  €:gg  is  broken  it  is 
too  tempting  a  morsel  to  be  left  in  the  nest.  The  hen 
not  only  eats  it,  but  often  carries  large  pieces  of  the 
shell  about  the  house  or  grounds,  pursued  by  other 
members  of  the  tlock,  each  of  which  wants  a  portion. 
In  this  manner  a  number  of  individuals  soon  learn 
how  a])peti7,ing.are  eggs  and  egg  shells,  and  each  in 
turn  becomes  a  teacher  of  others. 

It  is  plain  that  whatever  conditions  contribute  to 
the  breaking  of  eggs  in  the  nests  may  be  considered 
as  causes  of  the  habit.  Thin -shell  eggA  are  easily 
broken,  and,  hence,  a  deficiency  of  shell-forming 
constituents  in  the  ration  may  be  a  cause.  In  other 
cases  an   egg  may   be  broken    for  want  of    sufficient 


2  1 1  ])I.si:asi:s  oi-   i'oii.tky. 

straw  in  tin-  ncsl  lo  prolecl  il  Iroin  (lii\cl  coiilat-l  with 
the  wood. 

To  oruard  aj^ainst  the  formation  of  the  ei^j^ -eating 
lial)it  the  fowls  should  have  plenty  of  lime,  oyster- 
shells,  bone,  or  similar  sul)stances  to  ensure  a  firm 
shell  u])on  the  eggs.  The  nests  should  be  iJroperly 
supplied  with  straw,  and  artificial  nest  eggs  should 
be  used.  In  this  way  the  danger  of  breaking  eggs  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  It  is,  also,  well  to  have  the 
nests  rather  dark  so  that  if  an  egg  is  accidentally 
broken  the  hen  will  not  discover  it. 

When  the  habit  has  been  once  acquired,  these  ])re- 
cautions  are  not  always  sufficient,  and  it  may  be 
necessary  to  construct  the  nests  so  that  the  eggs  will 
roll  beyond  the  reach  of  the  hen.  Some  people  place 
artificial  eggs  in  the  nests  and  aliout  the  houses  so 
that  the  hens  may  peck  at  them  and  get  the  idea  that 
they  are  no  longer  able  to  break  egg  shells.  Others 
blow  out  the  contents  of  a  few  eggs  through  a  small 
hole  in  the  shell  and  fdl  the  space  with  a  paste  con- 
sisting largely  of  mustard,  capsicum,  aloes  or  other 
disagreeable  compounds  and  leave  these  where  the 
hens  will  find  them. 

Under  any  circumstances,  it  is  best  to  remove  the 
egg  eaters  from  the  remainder  of  the  flock,  and,  unless 
they  are  very  valuable,  to  kill  them  for  the  table.  If 
they  are  too  valuable  for  this  treatment,  then  dark 
nests  or  those  in  which  the  egg  rolls  into  a  safe  recep- 
tacle are  the  only  resources. 

FE.\THER    K.\TING,    FK.\THER    PULLING. 

Fowls  often  acquire  the  habit  of  pulling  out  and 
eating  either  their  own  feathers  or  the  feathers  of  other 
members  of  the  flock.  This  vice  is  acquired  most 
frequently   in    the   Spring   or    at    molting   time.     The 


Dlill'lASlvS    OF    POl'I.TKV.  215 

first  indication  that  the  l)ir(ls  arc  i)ullin.i;  luatlicrs  is 
the  loss  of  plumaj^c,  l)arencss  and  redness  of  the  skin 
over  the  posterior  i)art  of  the  hack.  Sometimes  the 
skin  has  become  al)raded  by  repeated  peckin-;  and 
sores  resnlt.  If  the  birds  are  watched  carefully,  they 
will  be  seen  to  catch  one  or  more  feathers  in  their 
beaks,  tear  them  out  and  swallow  them.  They  are 
apparently  most  fond  of  the  youno^,  growin.LC  feathers, 
the  quills  of  which  are  filled  with  blood. 

Various  causes  have  been  assigned  for  this  habit,  the 
most  probable  being  improper  rations  and  insuflficient 
exercise  or  idleness.  In  some  instances,  it  may 
originate  from  irritation  of  the  skin  caused  by  animal 
parasites.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  anything 
which  ])roduces  an  abnormal  appetite  predisposes  to 
feather  eating. 

As  preventive  measures,  the  birds  should  be  given 
a  free  run  or  they  should  at  least  be  made  to  scratch 
for  a  large  part  of  their  food.  This  exercise  improves 
their  digestion  and  gives  them  something  to  occupy 
tlicir  time.  As  in  some  cases,  the  habit  is  due  to  in- 
sufhcient  animal  matter  in  the  ration  or  to  feeding  too 
long  on  a  single  kind  of  grain,  particularly  corn,  one 
of  the  first  measures  adopted  should  be  a  well  balanced 
ration  containing  skim  milk,  meat,  bone,  vegetables 
or  green  feed  and  frequently  varied. 

The  Geneva,  N.  Y.  experiment  station  applied  to 
the  feathers  lard  or  \aseline  in  which  powdered  aloes 
had  been  mixed  and  after  continuing  this  treatment 
for  some  time  the  habit  disappeared.  This  success 
was  thought  to  be  due  to  the  disagreeable  taste  of  the 
aloes.  It  is  some  trouble  to  apply  this  mixture,  how- 
ever, and  unless  the  fowls  are  of  particular  value,  it 
is   probably   better   to    rely  upon   exercise,  variety  of 


246  I)1Si;asks  of  rour.TkV. 

food  and  st-paration  of  the  most  inveterate  subjects. 
The  skin  and  feathers  should  be  carefully  examined 
for  lice  and  miles,  and  it  these  are  found  the  remedies 
recommended  for  such  i)arasites  should  be  applied. 
As  lack  of  grit  may  be  the  cause  of  indigestion,  this 
essential  element  of  the  ration  should  receive  atten- 
tion, and  it  is  well  to  give  6  or  8  grains  daily  of  a 
mixture  of  equal  i>arts  of  powdered  gentian  root  and 
ginger.  The  birds  should  also  ])e  examined  for  in - 
teslinal  ])arasites. 


-PALIFC 


disi';asi';s  oi-   ron.TKv. 
INDEX. 


247 


Abscesses,  Deep  Bruises  anil,  203 
Air  Passaces,  Mvcosisol'  the,  56 
Air  Sac  Mite,  Tlie,  (.1 
Aiipitia,  Croupous,  76 
Anomalies  in  EfrtJ'  Production,  154 
AphllKv,  Thrush,  72 
Apoplexy.  160 

Appetite,  Aberration  of  the,  S3 
Appetite,  Abnormal,  83 
Ascites,  129 
Aspertjillosis,  S(i,  75 
Asthenia,  (loiufir  Liyht,  OO 
Atroi)hy  of  the  Ovary,  147 
Atrophv  or   Wasting-  of  the  Liver, 
132 

1! 
Beak,  Obstruction  of  the.  60 
Hlack  Head,  103 
Brain,  Contjestion  of  the,  159 
Brain,  Hemorrhag'e  of  the,  160 
Bronchitis,  37 

Bronchitis,  Verminous  Tracheo-40 
Bruises  and  Abscesses,  Deep,  203 

C 

Catarrh,  Contat^ious.  31 
Catarrh,  Gastro-Intestinal,  88 
Catarrh,  Simple.  29 
Chicken  Pox. 192 
Cholera,  Eradicatingr.  241 
Cholera,  Fowl,  232 
Cholera,  Vaccination  for,  242 
Cloaca,  Obstruction  of  the,  by  Uri- 
nary Concretions,  140 
Cloacilis,  153 

Congestion  of  the  Lunfrs;.  51 
Congestion,  Pulmonary,  51 
Constipation,  90 
Corns,  202 

Crop,  Catarrh  of  the,  7x 
Cro]),  Impacted,  SO 
Crop,  Inflammation  of  the,  7S 
Crop,  Obstructed.  SO 
Crop.  Paralysis  of  the.  80 

I) 

Diarrhea.  Simple,  SS 
Dig-estive     Org-ans.     General     Re- 
marks Concern  intr  the.  66 
Diphtheria.  74.  216 
Diphtheritic  Roup.  216 
Disease.  Common  Causes  of.  17 
Disinfection,  20 
Dropsy.  Abdominal,  129 
Dropsy  of  the  Heart  Sac,  162 


ICtre  Bound,  151 

Kfftr  Katiny,  243 

Hire's.  Incomplete  nr  Aborted.  157 

K'jg  Incubated  in  the  f>\iduct.  154 


Eg-gs.  Parasites  in,  155 

Egg-  Production,  Anomalies  in,  154 

Etrgs,  Santruineous,  1=6 

Etrtrs  Within  E^rgs,  158 

Eggs  Without  Shells,  156 

Eggs  with  Two  Yolks,  157 

Endocarditis,  lfi3 

Enteritis,  SS 

Enteritis,  Bacterial,  94 

Enteritis,  Gastro- SS 

Enteritis,  Toxic  Gastro-92 

Enteritis.  Psorospermic.  100 

Epizoa  or   Parasites  Living  Upon 

the     External     Surface     of     the 

body.  165 
Epilepsy,  160 

E 

Favus.  187 

Feather  Eating,  244 

Feather  Pulling,  244 

Feet,  Diseases  of  the,  200 

Fowf  Cholera,  232 

Fowl  Cholera,  (ieneral  Characters, 

233 
Fowl  Cholera,  History  of,  232 
Fowl  Cholera,  Vatcination  for,  242 

Cr 

Gangrene  of  the  Ovary,  148 

(iangrene  of  the  Oviduct,  152 

Gapes,  The,  40 

(iastritis.  84 

Going  Light,  Asthenia,  99 

(iout.  Rheumatism  and,  199 

H 

Health  and  Disease,  14 

Heart,  Hyoertrophy  of  the,  163 

Heart,  Inflammation  of  the  Inter- 
nal Membrane  of  the,  163 

Heart.  Rupture  of  the,  and  Large 
Blood  Vessels.  164 

Heart  Sac,  Dropsy  of  the,  162 

Hemorrhage  of  the  Brain,  160 

Hepatitis,  131 

Hepatitis  of  Turkeys,  Infectious 
Entero-  103 

Hvgienic  Reciuirements,  18 

Hyperiemia,  Cerebral,  159 

Hvpertrophv  or  Enlargement  of 
the  Testicles,  141 

I 
Icterus,  131 
Infections      Entero- Hepatitis      of 

Turkeys.  103 
Infectious  Leukaemia.  226 
Intestinal  Obstruction.  90 
Intestines.  Parasites  of  the,  114 


J.'iundi 


148 


DISl-'.ASl'.S    OV    POUKTKY 


Kidiipys.  Abscess  of  the,  IS** 
Kidnovs,  liitlaniniation  of  llic,  137 

L 
La\  iMtr,  DilVicull,  151 
I<fU  WoaKn^ss.  I'tK 
LoiiUa'inia,  Infectious,  2J!li 
Liver,  Atrophy  t>r  Wastiiit' o(  tin-. 

132 
Liver,  Coiiy-estioti  of  the.  13(i 
Liver,  Diseases  of  the,  129 
Liver,  Fatty,  134 
Liver,  Faltv   Deceiicratiuii   of  tlie, 

133 
Livi-r.  Iiillaniiiiat ion  of  the,  131 
Liver,  Tuberculosis  of  tlie.  134 
Lung's,  Conjrestiou  of  the.  51 
LiuiK's,  Iiillaniinatioii  of  the,  53 

M 
Medical  Treatnienl.  Objects  of.  22 
Mucus  Membrane  of    the   Moutli. 

Inflammation  of  the.  70 
Mycosis  of  the  Air  Passafjes,  56 

Nephritis,  Parenchymatous,  137 

O 
Objects  of  Medical  Treatment,  22 
Oesophajrus,  Parasites  of  the,  112 
Orpans    and    Apparatus  and   their 

Functions,  The.  15 
Ovary,  Atrophy  of  the,  147 
Ovary,  Gaufrrene  of  the.  14s 
Ovarv.  Tumors  of  the.  14.s 
Oviduct,  Eptr  Incubated  in  the,  154 
Oviduct.  Ganprene  of  the,  152 
Oviduct.  Inflammation  o{  the.  14') 
Oviduct,  Obstruction  of  the,  151 
Oviduct.  Prolapsus  or  Eversion  of 

the,  150 
Ovid\]Ct,  Rupture  of  the,  152 

P 

Parasites  in  Epcrs,  155 

Parasites    of    the     Intestines    and 

Peritoneum,  114 
P.irasites  Livinsr  upon  the  External 

Surface  of   the  Body,  Epizoa  or, 

165 
P.irasites  of    the  Oesophajrus   and 

Stomach,  112 
Parasites  of  the  Peritoneum.  114 
Parasitic  Worms  which    Infest  the 

Dig-estive  Apparatus,  111 
Pericarditis,  162 
Pericardium,  Inflammation   of  the, 

162 
I'rritoneum,   Inflammation   of  the. 

127 
Peritoneum.  Parasites  of  ilie.  114 
Peritoneum,  Tuberculosis   of    the. 

134 
Peritonitis.  127 


Peritonitis,  Chronic,  12'' 

Pharynx,  Obstruction  of  the,  77 

Pi),'e.".n  Pox,  102 

Pip,  70 

Pneumonia,  .53 

Poultry  Industry,  The,  13 

I'rolapsus     or      Eversion     of      the 

Oviduct,  1.50 
Proventriculus.  Catarrh  of  tlie.  H4 
Psorospermosis,  74 

1< 

Repletion.  I5iliary.  131 

Reproduction,  Female  Org-ans  of, 
142 

Reproduction,  Male  Ortrans  of,  140 

Res])iration.  Structure  and  Func- 
tion of  the  f)rtfans  of.  26 

Rheumatism  and  Gout.  I'f 

Roup.  Contatrious  Catarrh,  31 

Roup.  Diphtheritic.  216 

Rupture  of  the  Heart  and  Large 
Blood  Vessels.  164 

Rupture  of  the  Oviduct,  152 

S 
Scabies  Caused  by    Epidermoptes. 

1.S3 
Scabies  Caused  by  Sarcoptes,  1J<4 
Scabies,  Depluniintr,  1M4 
.Scabies  of  the  Lej^s  and  Feet.  204 
Scabies  or  Manijre  of  the  Body,  1^3 
Scalv  Leys,  2(4 
Sore  Head.  1<»2 
Sores,  Superficial,  202 
Spleen,  Tuberculosis  of  the,  134 
Stomach,  Inflammation  of  the.  84 
Stomach,  Parasites  of  the,  112 
Stomatitis.  Catarrhal,  70 
Synjjraniosis,  40 
Syngamus  Bronchialis,  51 

T 

Tieniasis,  Nodular,  of  Fowls,  The, 
123 

Testicles,  Cancer  of  the,  142 

Testicles,  Fatty  Degeneration  of 
the.  142 

Testicles.  Hypertrophy  or  Enlarge- 
ment of  the.  141 

Thrush.  Aphthie.  72 

Tuberculosis.  20S 

Tuberculosis  of  the  Liver,  Spleen, 
and  Peritoneum.  134 

Tumors  of  the  Ovary.  14« 
U 

Urination,  Brief  Description  of  the 
Organs  of,  136 

V 

Vaccination  for  Fowl  Cholera,  242 

Vent  Gleet,  153 

Vertigo,  159 

W 

Worms.  I'arasitic.  which  Infest  the 
Digestive  Apparatus.  Ill 


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